
r,lass 


■ '33 


Rnnlf .^ 


%mmw 



COPYRIGHT DEPOSm 



ui^i^i^.m^^^iM^B^'^sm^: .. 



.M£it'''MV 



QUERIES IN ETHNOGRAPHY 



\ 



Digitized by tine Internet Arciiive 
in 2011 witii funding from 
The Library of Congress 



Iittp://www.arcliive.org/details/queriesinetlinogr01kell 



QUERIES 



IN 



ETHNOGRAPHY 



BY 

ALBERT GALLOWAY KELLER, Ph.D. 

Assistant Professor of the Science of Society 
in Yale University 



LONGMANS, GREEN, AND CO 
91 AND 93 FIFTH AVENUE, NEW YORK 
LONDON AND BOMBAY 
1903 



THE LIBRARY OF 
CONGRESS, 

Two Copies Rvcaivecf 

SEP 16 (903 

Copytight Entry 

CLASS CU XXe. No 

COPY B. 



^t,IY33 



Xk 



Copyright, 1903, 

BV 

ALBERT GALLOWAY KELLER. 



ROBERT DRUMMOND, PRINTER, NEW YORK. 



PREFACE 



The present manual is designed neither 
for the expert nor for the wholly uninstructed. 
Taking its origin in the desire to provide a 
guide for students who were, in their class- 
room work, more or less familiar with the 
science of society, and who purposed travel 
or missionary activity in remoter foreign 
parts, it attempts to meet the needs, above 
all, of the interested amateur. The special- 
ist needs no such manual, and the utterly unin- 
structed are unfitted to use one with discrim- 
ination and result; but if the intelligent and 
partially instructed layman can be impressed 
with the necessity of scientific accuracy and 
candor, something may be looked for from his 
efforts. 

Because the book has not been designed for 
experts, no space has been given to Somatic 
Anthropology. This branch of investigation 
cannot well be prosecuted by the traveller, 
who will have neither the skill nor the patience 
for experimentation and the taking of meas- 



urements, nor the space for the necessary 
apparatus. And there exists already an ade- 
quate guide for such investigation.* 



* Notes and Queries on Anthropology, edited by John 
George Garson, M.D., and Charles Hercules Read, 
F.S.A., third edition, London, 1899. 

This small and convenient volume presents likewise 
extended lists of queries on Ethnography. The authority 
of the contributors is beyond question; but, as it seems to 
the present writer, their composite production suffers, in 
the hands of a non-specialist, from the very eminence and 
multipUcity of its authorship. It must be said also that 
the questions are often couched in such form as to suggest 
the scientifically significant answer instead of simply a 
line of thought. The same is even more characteristic of 
a set of questions published by J, G. Frazer, in the 
Journal of the Anthropological Institute, vol. 24, pp. 
158 ff. Specimen answers here given witness to the ex- 
cellence and utility of such a list of queries, even when it 
reflects, as this one does, in large part, the special scien- 
tific interests of a single noted writer. 

One of the most important of older handbooks is the 
Anleitung zu wissenschaftlichen Beohachtungen auf Reisen, 
mit hesonderer Riicksicht auf die Bedilrfnisse der Kaiser- 
lichen Marine, von G. Neumeyer, BerHn, 1875. This 
volume contains a characteristic section, in treatise form, 
on Allgemeine Begriffe der Ethnologie, by A. Bastian 
Another valuable manual is Der Beohachter, Allgemeine 
Anleitung zu Beohachtungen iiber Land und Leute, filr 
Touristen, Excursionisten und Forschungsreisende, von D . 
Kaltbrunner (author of Manuel du Voyageur) and E. 
Kohlbrunner, 2te Auflage, Zurich, 1888, a vade mecum 
vi 



The arrangement of questions here presented 
is systematic, treating all parts of the sub- 
ject in proportion to their apprehended relation 
to the whole; and for this reason it is hoped 
that it will be useful to some extent in uni- 
versity or college instruction in the science of 
society. The system followed has been that 
developed by Professor Sumner, of Yale Uni- 
versity, and his collections of topics and material 
have been generously made available for the 
present purpose; much is owed also to his 
criticism and encouragement. Professor Oertel 
has been kind enough to look over, criticise, 
and add to the queries on language. Consid- 
erable indebtedness likewise exists to the volume 
of Notes and Queries just mentioned, and to 
Professor Frazer's list. It goes without saying 
that the standpoint of the work is purely aca- 
demic, representing the attitude of the syste- 
matizing and constructive worker toward his 
material. Any such survey is necessarily far 



made with great care and intelligence. It has an im- 
portant section on Anthropology. Instruzioni Scientifiche 
pei Viaggiatori, raccolte da Arturo Issel, Roma, 1881, 
is based largely upon the earlier form of Kaltbrunner's 
work. The latter appears to have lost considerably by 
the transfer and selection. All of these books except the 
first named devote to Anthropology but a small section of 
a rather portly volume; and only by exception do they 
employ the method of simple and direct interrogation. 



from complete or final, and all suggestions 
looking to its betterment will be welcomed. 

To one who has reflected upon the subject 
at all, the need of incitements to the general 
and prompt collection of ethnographical data 
speaks for itself. Native races are either 
disappearing or are becoming so modified in 
contact with higher races as no longer to pre- 
sent those naturally evolved usages and cus- 
toms a knowledge of which is indispensable to 
the understanding of man's life on earth. 
But this contact itself of races and cultures 
is far from being devoid of scientific interest, 
and for this reason a separate set of queries 
has been made out under the head of * ' Contact 
and Modifications." 

A. G. K. 

New Haven, June 4, 1903. 
viii 



TABLE OF CONTENTS 



PAGE 

Preface v 

Directions — General Remarks i 

Maintenance 3 

Perpetuation 23 

Gratification 34 

Religious and Superstitious Ideas and Usages 37 

The Societal System '. 55 

Contact and Modification 65 

Index 71 

ix 



QUERIES IN ETHNOGRAPHY 



DIRECTIONS 

I. As to all points: state whether the evi- 
dence is (a) positive, {b) probable (and in 
what degree), or (c) inferential; obtained by 
your own observation or by inquiry and report ; 
if by inquiry, state the number of witnesses, 
your judgment of their credibility, and the 
degree of their unanimity. 

Do not fear to make your records full. Make 
records in any convenient way (in a diary, by 
tables, or under topics), but make them sys- 
tematic, so that any one can understand them. 

II. Usages, Customs, etc. Observe all facts 
carefully; if possible, repeatedly. State accu- 
rately, so as to leave no room for wrong inter- 
pretations ; make inferences, if fully warranted, 
but be sure and state them as such. Always 
mention any superstitions or curious customs 
in connection with points described, and, if 
possible, native explanations of them. 



III. Objects collected. Attach a number to 
each object and make a careful record under 
the same number of every detail of the cir- 
cumstances under which it was obtained. 
Remember that the whole value of the object 
may later depend on knowing with certainty 
some one of these details. Be sure that the 
object is genuine. 

IV. Photographs, (a) Number each photo- 
graph and record on it, or independently 
under the same number, all the details neces- 
sary to fully identify and classify the persons 
or things represented. State all the circum- 
stances under which it was taken (time of day, 
light, etc.). 

(6) Always preserve the negative if possible. 
Put a number on it, with due reference to the 
record about it. 

{c) Get photographs of the complete figure 
of persons, if possible, with all details and acces- 
sories. Photographs are useless if not clear. 



GENERAL REMARKS 

The following questions are designed to be 
suggestive rather than exhaustive; and inves- 
tigators are urged to develop their answers 
in all possible detail, and to record any data 
of interest not herein mentioned. It is also 



desirable to collect all drawings, specimens, 
etc., that may be available, as illustration. 

Such investigations must be pursued with 
tact, and the attempt should always be made 
to realize the native position and view-point. 
Native opinion concerning native institutions 
is always valuable, even though apparently 
mistaken; and in judging of native institutions 
there is no more common or fatal error than 
that of projecting one's own civilized ideas into 
the minds of the uncivilized, and thus inter- 
preting data under bias. 

Finally, the attempt must constantly be 
made to distinguish what is really native from 
what is of foreign origin. It is very important 
to know the effects on native peoples of con- 
tact with civilized races, and investigators 
are urged to note any changes due directly 
or indirectly to such contact; but both varie- 
ties of evidence are vitiated if careful discrim- 
ination is not made. 

Investigators are advised to use Tylor's 
Anthropology as an explanatory manual. 



MAINTENANCE 

Hunting, i. Describe weapons and their 
fabrication, with full list of weapons used; 
likewise traps, nets, hooks, bait, etc., and any 
3 



other skilful or cunning devices for alluring, 
killing, or capturing game and fish. 2. Give 
illustrations of the degree of effectiveness of 
weapons, etc., and of skill in their use. 3. What 
animals are employed as aids in hunting? 
4. Is there any accurate knowledge of the 
habits of wild animals? 5. Are any precau- 
tions taken in the eating of poison-killed game? 
6. Describe methods of determining owner- 
ship in game. 7- Any game laws and their 
objects. 8. Describe any customs or super- 
stitions connected with hunting or fishing 
(before or after) on the part of the hunters 
or of those left behind. 9. Are the spirits of 
slain animals appeased? 

10. Do men despise animals as inferiors, 
or do they admire them? Why? 11. Are 
there animal stories, and what animals are 
the heroes? 12. What domestic animals are 
named? 13. Are men supposed to be de- 
scended from animals, and do they bear animal 
names? 14. Is there any cruelty to animals? 
15. Any signs of incipient domestication? 16. 
What theories as to the movements of migra- 
tory animals? 17. Any dexterities or the like 
that have been learned from animals? 18. Are 
there vermin on the person; what is done to 
rid the person or dwelling of them? 

Cattle-raising. 19. Kind of cattle and de- 
gree of tameness. 20. Why kept (for flesh, 
4 



milk, skins, draught), and value for the pur- 
pose. 21. Feeling toward cattle; are they 
named? 22. How are cattle owned; are there 
any communal rights; any private marks? 
23. Diseases of cattle and how treated. 24. 
How herded and sheltered. 25. Size of herds. 
26. Ideals of beauty in cattle (color, etc.) ; 
selection and breeding; ornamentation of. 27. 
Are any hybrid animals bred? 28. How 
butchered; are there different methods on 
different occasions; is it done regularly? 29. 
Castration and breaking of cattle; how done, 
and with what ceremonies. 

30. Milking: by whom done; how often; 
quantity and quality of milk; how, in what 
state, and by whom used; what relation of 
women to cattle; what ceremonies or super- 
stitions connected with milking? 31. Are 
butter or cheese made, and how are they used? 
32. Any ceremonies connected with drinking 
milk together. 33. Name any curious facts 
or superstitions connected with milk. 34. Are 
there any special uses (practical or supersti- 
tious) of cattle-dung, urine, etc.? 35- Name 
any additional facts showing the importance 
of cattle {e.g., use as a standard of value, 
valuation, religious significance, etc.) 36. 
Which animals are or are not sacrificed (e.g., 
is the work-animal exempt) ? 

37. Reasons for nomadic life: is it continu- 
ous, or is it broken by periods of sedentary 
5 



life, and what determines this? 38. What are 
the effects of nomadic life on the following: 
fate of the old and weak; growth of popula- 
tion; arts; ideas of property in land; con- 
struction of houses and vehicles; religion; 
formation of special laws or customs; any- 
other societal phenomena? 

Agriculture. 39- Name the chief products of 
the soil; what is their degree of likeness to 
indigenous wild vegetation? 40. Methods of 
clearing the ground. 41. Methods of pre- 
serving the soil or rendering it more fertile 
(rotation of crops, use of manure, irrigation, 
etc.). 42. Describe in full the agricultural 
implements used, with a full list of the same. 

43. Are grafting or artificial fertilization known? 

44. Are men or women more prominent in 
agriculture? 45. Time of planting and har- 
vesting, and any ceremonies connected there- 
with. 46. Describe any ceremonies: to get 
good crops; to get rain; to avert drought, hail, 
vermin, etc.; at threshing-time; at the eating 
of the new crops, etc.; with reasons given for 
such performances. 47- Is any part of the 
crop saved for the next year; are there any 
superstitions about the first or last of the grain 
that is cut? 48. Ceremonies at the cutting 
down of trees, digging of wells, etc. 49- De- 
scribe any forms of enclosure of land; why 
enclosed. 50. How is land distributed for cul- 

6 



tivation (communal; periodical)? 51. How is 
the produce divided? 

Arts and Processes. 52. Give full detail of 
the manufacture of ornaments, weapons, tools, 
houses, furniture, fabrics, basketry, pottery, 
pigments, etc. Detailed questions follow. 53. 
Distinctions between tools and weapons. 54. 
What kinds of stone are employed in making 
tools, etc.? 55- Efficacy of tools, time needed 
for the fabrication of articles, etc. 56. Stone 
tools, wooden utensils, etc. — any superstitions 
about their use. 57. Implements and methods 
of sewing ; string or thread and its manufacture. 
58. Describe the spindle and the loom. 59. Is 
the potter's wheel in use? 60. Describe any 
processes in use for wood-working (hardening, 
bending, gluing, etc.) ; what are the chief woods 
used? 61. Basketry: can water-proof baskets 
be woven ; are baskets commonly used as moulds 
for pottery? 62. What is mixed with clay in 
making pottery (blood, hair, etc.) ? 63. Leather 
work: describe methods of removing hair, tan- 
ning, etc. ; are skin garments worn with the hair 
outside? 64. Is there any method of preparing 
objects for the dye? 65. How are paints pre- 
pared and fixed? 66. What is the size of the 
largest webs that can be woven, and how are 
patterns put in? 67. Describe any methods of 
making bark cloth. 

68. Describe all methods of stone-working, 
7 



e.g., the cutting of stone without metallic tools; 
the flaking of flint ; the haf ting and sharpening 
of stone axes ; the length of time needed to make 
a stone tool, and to operate with it ; the period 
of use of the stone tool and its final fate. 69. 
Metals: what metals are known; are they used 
in an approximately pure state? 70. Describe 
in full processes, tools, etc., used in mining and 
working them. 71. Is there any fusion or 
alloy ; if so, give proportions of the base metals. 
72. Is welding or tempering known? 73. Are 
lead ores smelted to obtain silver? 74. Is the 
use of quicksilver in mining known? 75. Name 
any tools or inventions that appear to be mod- 
elled on forms in nature. 76. Are there any 
useless or striking correspondences in shape 
between stone and metal tools? 77. Name 
any inventions of tools, processes, etc., claimed 
by the natives as their own. 

78. Which of the following are in use: lever, 
inclined plane, wedge, screw, wheel and axle, 
pulley? 79. Is any form of pump or substi- 
tute for it known? 80. The construction of the 
drill (fire drill or other); is there a fly-wheel? 
81. What supplies the place of the hinge? 82. 
Are there any traditions as to the origin of any 
of the handicrafts, and especially of fire- and 
pottery -making? 83. Catalogue the uses of 
any extraordinarily useful plant or tree {e.g.^ 
bamboo, date-palm). 

8 



Edifices and Settlements. 84. Describe the 
shape, size, construction, etc., of the habita- 
tions. 85. Are caves used as dwelHngs, and by 
what classes of the population? 86. Describe 
the following features of edifices: arches or 
vaults; chimneys; stairs. 87. Describe the 
furniture, especially chairs, tables, and beds. 

88. Are there any ceremonies connected w4th 
the selection of site, laying of foundation, con- 
struction, or taking possession of the house? 

89. Do the natives favor hills, river banks, etc., 
as sites of dwellings and settlements? 90. 
What influence has the desire for a water- 
supply; are there any " water- works " ? 91. 
Are there any tree-houses or lake or marine 
villages, and what is the reason for such forms? 

92. Describe any pretentious works of engi- 
neering (e.g. , bridges) ; how many laborers and 
how much time are needed? 93. How are 
extremely heavy weights transported? 

Fire. 94- Is it "kept" {i.e., not kindled)? 
95. Describe exactly the process and imple- 
ments used in generation; if generated by per- 
cussion, identify the mineral used. 96. Meth- 
ods of carrying fire; any fire-myths or stories 
of the origin of fire. 97- Give details of all 
superstitions on the subject of fire. 98. What 
fuels are used? 99. Are there any cases of 
the making of "new fire"; why and on what 
occasions? 100. Who takes charge of the fire 
9 



in a family? loi. What social significance has 
fire and fire-lending? 102. Describe methods 
of illumination. 

103. Chief methods of cooking; vessels and 
implements used, etc. 104. Is food ever eaten 
raw, and what is thought of this proceeding? 
105. Who cooks the food? 

Food. 106. Are there any ways of deaden- 
ing the pangs of hunger without food? 107. 
Name the chief foods in use. 108. Are the 
natives omnivorous regularly or on occasions? 
109. What are the favorite foods (e.g., blood, 
fat, marrow, oils)? no. What quantities are 
eaten at a meal; are the natives gluttonous? 
III. Times and seasons of abstinence; who sets 
them and why; is there any absolute taboo on 
any food? 112. Are there famines; to what 
due ; is there any provision against them ; any 
distribution of the food-supply? 113- Methods 
of preparation from the raw; are any foods 
eaten from which poisonous elements must first 
be extracted ; how is this done ; are there any 
stories as to the discovery of the process? 114. 
Are fungi eaten; what varieties? 115. Are 
foods gritty; what is the effect on the teeth? 
116. Feeling toward the following foods: meat, 
eggs, milk, salt, or pungent foods; name the 
latter. 117. Name any extraordinary foods 
eaten, with any attendant ceremonies. 118. 
Are rancid or spoiled foods eaten; do any dis- 



eases result? iiQ- Salt; how obtained; is it 
used for other purposes than for food? 120. 
Honey ; are there any other sweets ; any pecul- 
iar uses of honey ; how are the combs gathered 
and apportioned ; are there any artificial hives ? 
121. Blood: in how far is it used as a food; is 
human blood so used; is the blood of special 
animals so used; is the sight of blood avoided 
at all times or only at special times? 122. Are 
the vital organs eaten; why? 123. Are any 
parts of the animal eaten which we do not eat? 
124. Utensils and methods of eating. 

125. Cannibalism: is it for the sake of meat 
food or what; who are the victims; how ob- 
tained, slain, and prepared? 126. What parts 
of the body are eaten, or ceremonially eaten 
(tasted); and which are the delicacies? 127. 
Has human flesh that is to be eaten any special 
name of its own? 128. Describe the times, 
occasions, ceremonies, special vessels, and im- 
plements of cannibal feasts. 129. Is there any 
" uncleanness " connected with participation in 
a cannibal feast; with the unceremonial eating 
of human flesh as an ordinary food? 130. Is 
cannibalism habitual or exceptional; general or 
confined to certain classes? 131. Are the na- 
tives proud of cannibalism or ashamed of it, 
and, if ashamed, why do they persist in it, 
do they fear punishment for it? 132. Are 
there traditions or survivals of previous canni- 
balism? 

II 



133- Are any foods forbidden (to certain per- 
sons, at certain times, etc.); why? 134. Are 
there any "unclean" foods, and why are they 
so? 135- Are there special foods for the rich or 
poor, high or low classes, etc.? 136. Do men 
and women eat together or apart; is their food 
cooked together or apart; what are the rea- 
sons? 137. Are any persons forbidden to feed 
themselves {i.e., to touch food); why? 138. Is 
it lucky to be seen eating by another? 139. 
Are ancient shell-heaps or refuse-heaps found, 
and what are the native theories about them? 
140. Describe any methods of safe-storing or 
preservation of food. 

Stimulants. i4i' Feeling for stimulants: 
name the various varieties. 142. Are there 
any stories or superstitions about them; any 
peculiar ceremonies attending their use or in 
connection with which they are used? 143. 
Are they used for medicinal purposes? 144. 
Liquors: which are intoxicating and which are 
not; what species of intoxication do they pro- 
duce? 145* Describe methods of preparation 
and use. 146. Is the object of drinking pleas- 
ure or intoxication? 147. Compare the strength 
of native intoxicants with that of some familiar 
drink of civilization. 148. What quantities 
produce intoxication? 149- What quantity of 
good-grade whiskey would produce intoxication 
in the same subject? 150* What do the na- 



tives think of foreign drinks as compared with 
their own? 151. Are there any superstitions, 
legends, etc., about drinks? 152. Tobacco: 
how used ; describe pipes or other means of tak- 
ing tobacco. 153- Is it smoked pure? 154. 
Give any data as to time or origin of introduc- 
tion. 155. Importance of tobacco to the na- 
tives. 156. Spices and condiments: how and 
in what quantities used; what is the object in 
making the foods "hot"? 15 7' Are there any 
distinctly perverted appetites? 158. Are there 
any prohibitions against the use of stimulants, 
narcotics, etc., to certain persons, at certain 
times, etc. ; by whom and for what purpose put 
into force? 

Clothing. 159. How much is worn; is it 
ornamental or useful; tight-fitting or loose? 
160. Has clothing a specialized form, or can it 
be conveniently used for other purposes? 161. 
Describe attachments, clasps, etc. 162. Is 
clothing inherited? 163. Is shame exhibited 
at the uncovering of any parts of the body; 
which parts? 164. Detail any other circum- 
stances which evoke this feeling. 165. What 
appears to be the fundamental reason for it 
{e.g., sexual feeling, custom, or vanity)? 

Transportation. 166. Describe roads, paths, 
and bridges, and their maintenance. 167. Hu- 
man carriers, under the following heads (com- 
13 



pare with familiar standards): endurance and 
physical strength; average load; average day's 
march; average speed; endurance of hunger 
and thirst ; use of stimulants ; favorite methods 
and contrivances for carrying loads; climbing 
powers and methods (steep and rough paths, 
trees, etc.). i68. Does the system of using 
human carriers tend to strengthen slavery? 
169. Draught-animals: methods of breaking; 
harness; methods of driving; speed, endur- 
ance, etc., as in number 167. 170. Vehicles 
of any variety (sledges, carts, skates, etc.): 
details of construction, especially of peculiar 
or unusual forms. 171- Devices for carrying 
water. 

Shipping. 172. Describe any water-craft: 
processes of construction; model; means of 
propulsion and steering; speed; power of sail- 
ing into the wind (use of keel or centre-board, 
jibs, etc.) ; special ceremonies at launching, 
etc. 173- In outriggers or double boats, what 
is the shape of the hull; does the outrigger 
occupy any special position according to the 
direction of the wind? 174. Is paddling regu- 
lar or variable in rapidity; is there a time- 
keeper? 175. What points of the compass 
are recognized and what are their names ; what 
understanding of winds, currents, etc., is found? 
176. Are boats named? 177. Are there any 
ceremonies at the arrival of a foreign boat? 
14 



178. Swimming and diving: compare na- 
tive methods and skill with European. 

Trade. 179. Are presents given in the ex- 
pectation of an equal return? 180. Notions of 
values; give some examples of values. 181. 
Piracy: its reputation; does it appear in any 
cases to be turning into trade? 182. Name 
any methods of trade which appear to indicate 
distrust between the parties ("deposit-bar- 
ter"). 183. Are there any specialized medi- 
ums of trade, either classes or individuals (e.g., 
women)? 184. Is there free access to natural 
supplies (e.g., flint, salt, water), or are tolls 
charged? describe in full. 185. Transit dues 
and other restrictions of trade; how are such 
tolls levied and collected? give some idea of 
their size. 186. Robber-tribes and their rela- 
tion to sedentary, commercial neighbors. 187. 
Are export and import of certain articles ever 
prohibited or encouraged, and why? 

Markets and Fairs. 188. Location; frequency; 
attendance; regulation and policing; settle- 
ment of disputes; methods and times for 
trade; provisions for housing and feeding 
the assembled traders. 189. Standard and 
enforcement of commercial honesty. 190* 
Weights and measures, scales, etc., and their 
origins. 

191. Mechanism of exchange: the circulat- 
15 



ing medium and the standard of value (e.g., 
salt, shells, cattle, coin) ; credit and credit 
instruments; debts and their collection; ac- 
counting, etc. 192. Is metallic or other money 
ever in a form that suggests some more ancient 
exchangeable object (e.g., an ox) upon which 
it is modelled? 193. Describe any stamping 
processes; any ways to prevent or detect false 
quantity or quality in money. 194. Is there 
any hoarding of money or treasure; why; how 
is it kept? 195. Are there any persons who 
receive deposits for others; have they the use 
of these deposits? 196. Is there any such 
thing as interest; at what rates; how are in- 
terest and interest-taking regarded? 197- May 
women or minors contract loans? 

198. Give the details of the formation, or- 
ganization, and methods of any business enter- 
prises (e.g., caravans); methods of sharing, 
etc. 199. What remedy is there in the case 
of non-delivery of purchased goods? 200. 
What is thought of a person who refuses to 
repay a loan? 

201. Name the exports and imports; what 
articles and qualities are desired in imports; 
are trade-marks recognized as establishing 
quality? 202. Describe any difficulties or 
hindrances met by traders in consequence of 
"native methods". 203. Slave trade: regu- 
larity; raids; marts; values of slaves; profits; 
good and evil effects. 204. Give any evidence 
16 



as to distances over which trade articles pass 
among primitive tribes; what and how accu- 
rate a knowledge of geography is possessed, 
and how much of this is the result of trade? 
205. Is there any transfer of domesticated 
plants and animals, or of processes and dex- 
terities, in connection with the transfer of 
commodities? 206. Fords and ferries; how re- 
garded between tribes? 

Communication. 207. How is information 
disseminated (couriers; signals and signal- 
fires; drum-language; notched sticks; knotted 
cords, etc.)? 

Language. 208. What are the conventional 
gestures which are used without accompany- 
ing words (e.g., nodding for "yes")? 209. 
What is the relation of gesture language to spoken 
language? 210. What sounds different from our 
own are in use, and what sounds in European 
speech are absent, or impossible of pronunciation ? 
211. What is the function of tone, pitch, and em- 
phasis in speech ? 212. Are there any words whose 
sounds are imitative (e.g., buzz)? 213. Are 
there any abstract words (e.g., "property," 
"shame"), or are they all special and concrete 
("cattle and farm," instead of "property," 
etc.)? 214. Are there any words or phrases 
used exclusively by men or by women? 215. 
Are there any mixed trade-languages {e.g., 
17 



"pidgin-English"), or contact-languages (prod- 
uct of mixture of two adjacent tribes)? 216. 
Dialects: the number spoken within a given 
area; their boundary-lines; encroachment, or 
combination, and reasons for it (e.g., through 
trade). 217. Do the natives realize the devia- 
tions in the speech of their neighbors {cf. case 
of shibboleth) ; do they ridicule or nickname 
them on account of speech-differences; how? 

Note. Collect connected texts (not translations), 
take down verbatim some fable, description of a hunt, 
wedding ceremony, etc., having the same story told, 
if possible, by more than one person. Compile, if possi- 
ble, a small dictionary of common words and phrases, 
as of parts of the body, things used and done in daily life, 
etc. Questions of linguistic criticism must be left for 
experts, and the only practicable service of the layman 
is that of collection of material according to expert sug- 
gestion. For this reason no detailed questions on lan- 
guage are given; direction for observation may be found 
in all due fullness in Sweet's Practical Study of Lan- 
guages. Collectors are requested to take photographs 
of gestures, and to indicate pitch, tone, etc., as far as 
possible, by musical notation. 

Care should be taken, here as elsewhere, to avoid 
influencing the native by questions, especially leading 
ones. If a native is asked for the translation of a foreign 
word, he is likely to give a term that corresponds to it 
only very imperfectly. The real meaning of words 
must be gradually elaborated from bona- fide texts; hence 
as many of the latter as possible should be collected. 

Writing. 218. Which of the following are in 
18 



use to transmit ideas: pictures, conventionale 
ized pictures, phonetic script? 219. Rehearse 
any legends as to the origin of writing, or any- 
superstitious views regarding it. 

220. How is counting done; how high does 
it go before numbers come to mean simply 
"many"? 221. Have number- designations 
any relation to natural objects {e.g., fingers, 
toes)? 222. How is time divided (day and 
year)? 223. Describe any native calendar, or 
device for keeping time during the day. 

224. What is known of the natural sciences 
(topography, meteorology, etc.)? 225. De- 
scribe in detail any native maps. 226. What 
operations of arithmetic are known, and how 
effected? 227. How are multiples formed (by 
fives, tens, etc.)? 

228. History: how preserved; according to 
what chronology. 229. Give what you can of 
the history of the society in question {e.g., ori- 
gins; migrations; relations to other tribes, etc.). 
230. Rehearse native traditions of inventions; 
the arts ; customs and laws ; heroes of the past ; 
changes in social and political organization; 
religion; the occurrence of great natural phe- 
nomena, etc. 

231. Describe any native forms of physical 
mental, or moral, training; any special or pro- 
fessional education. 232. Compare facility in 
learning (especially in the case of children) 
with that of Europeans. 233. What is easiest, 
19 



and hardest, for natives to learn? 234. At 
what age does the ability to learn appear to 
cease? 235. Outline the average native char- 
acter. 236. Give any instances of planful or far- 
sighted action. 

Occupations. 237. Name the chief occupa- 
tions ; are any looked down upon or prohibited, 
and why; are wages paid, and in what form? 
238. Are there any non -laborers ? 239. Is 
there any regulation of industry ; any combina- 
tion into gild-like forms? 240. Explain any 
systems of co-operation or division of labor, 
whether between individuals or groups. 

War. 241. What are the causes for war? 
242. Describe weapons, armor, etc., with full 
lists of the same. 243. Do weapons for war 
differ from those for the chase? 244. Are poi- 
soned weapons used ; how regarded? 245. De- 
scribe precisely the poisons employed, together 
with their effects ; process of manufacture. 246. 
What are the play-weapons of childhood? 247. 
Are there any "old" or unmanly weapons, and 
why are they thought to be unmanly ? 248. Are 
aiTow-heads, etc., constructed so as to come off 
in the wound, and how? 249. What is the 
method of holding the arrow when releasing it ; 
are feathers put on the arrows? 250. Are in- 
cendiary weapons permitted; spikes concealed 
in paths; any other to us cowardly weapons? 



251. Is there any declaration of war? describe 
it. 252. Are there any notions of "fairness" 
in combat; is ambush dishonorable; is it allow- 
able to poison or cut off the water-supply or 
otherwise prevail over the enemy through what 
are to us disgraceful means? 253. Describe all 
rules of warfare that differ markedly from our 
own. 254. Are there any truces, and for what 
purposes; are there any persons or groups of 
persons who are inviolable in time of war; are 
there any places of refuge or other means of 
safety? 255. Who are the heralds and am- 
bassadors; does a duel of champions ever re- 
place a general battle, and what reasons are 
given for the practice? 256. Are there any 
special times when warfare is prohibited? 

257. Is there any regular training in arms; 
any initiation of warriors; do women ever 
engage in war? 258. Is there a distinction 
made between raids, feuds, and warfare, and 
what is it? 259. How are warriors mustered, 
and do they receive any compensation or im- 
munities in return for their services? 260. 
How does the life of a professional warrior 
differ from that of an ordinary man? 

261. The discipline of war: rewards and 
punishments; are there sham battles in time 
of peace? 262. Organization for war: what is 
the method of fighting (individual or collec- 
tive) ; power and insignia of chiefs and officers ; 
tactics, war -songs, cries, etc.; are battles 
21 



strategically planned in advance; what is done 
with the young and weak in time of war; are 
there any military "tricks"? 263. Describe 
the prosecution of a siege; are strongholds 
arranged in strategic order? 264. What con- 
stitutes defeat? 

265. What animals are used in war, and 
how? 266. What European weapons are in use 
(modem or old-fashioned) ; is a fairly compli- 
cated mechanism understood ; can it be repaired 
by a native? 267. Discuss in full the ques- 
tion of supplies in time of war. 268. What 
are woman's position, duties, and fate in war? 
269. Are there any cases of the spread of arts, 
etc., through war and its effects? 270. De- 
scribe the ceremonies before or after a war (i) 
by the warriors, (2) by the people left behind. 
271. Are the dead mutilated; how? 272. 
What are the trophies of war {e.g., heads)? 
describe the treatment of prisoners and van- 
quished (see p. 59 ff.) ; the ceremonies connected 
with cessation of war; methods of indemnifica- 
tion in case of war. 

Property. 273. Discuss property in chattels 
(amulets, ornaments, tools, etc.) ; how does the 
conception of personal property differ from our 
own; does mere possession or casual use con- 
fer the right of property in things ? 274. What 
is the form of property in natural deposits 
(flint, salt-wells, etc.)? 
22 



2 75- What forms of property are held in com- 
mon? 276. Does the chief, theoretically or 
actually, own everything? 277. How far does 
might constitute right in property -holding ? 
278. Do the gods or spirits own property of any 
kind, and what is it? 279. What kinds of prop- 
erty may the following hold: women (married 
and unmarried); minors? 280. Describe the 
form of property-holding in human beings 
(wives, children, slaves). 

281. How is property (e.g., in trees, bees'- 
nests) marked; is this mark respected, and 
why? 282. Are animals marked; branded? 
283. Is there any clear conception of private 
property versus private use (usufruct) in land; 
how are boundaries designated? 284. Describe 
anything that appears to be communal land- 
holding: regulation and changes of assign- 
ments, etc. 285. Are any of the following 
found: guardianship; reversion to the authori- 
ties, or confiscation (for what reason?); mort- 
gage; rent; lease; resumption at stated periods 
{e.g., jubilee years); condemnation; legal con- 
veyance etc.? 



PERPETUATION 

286. Up to what age are girls and boys al- 
lowed to associate freely, in play, etc.? 287. 
Describe any change in the relations of the 
23 



sexes subsequent to the ceremonies of puberty. 
288. Are there any sexual excesses? 289. 
Describe any forms of prostitution; how is it 
regarded; are there any evils attendant? 290. 
Are aphrodisiacs used? 291. What is the aver- 
age age of marriage ; are there infant marriages, 
marriages of the dead, or any other peculiar 
forms? 292. Are there special houses for the 
unmarried; why? 293. Describe any match- 
making festivals. 294. Are there marriage 
brokers, or middlemen; accidental marriages? 
295. How is celibacy looked upon; who are the 
celibates and why; are there eunuchs and for 
what purpose? 296. What constitutes eligi- 
bility for marriage in woman and in man? 

297. What constitutes the marriage institu- 
tion? 298. Is there group-marriage (miscella- 
neous association between members of certain 
groups of males and females) , or any other form 
suggesting promiscuity? 299. Forbidden and 
prescribed marriages ; where must a man marry 
and where must he not marry; what is the 
penalty of incest; what reasons are given for 
prohibiting the marriage of near kin? 

300. Are wives * captured, traded for, bought, 
served for, or received as gifts? 30 1« Are 
there any penalties for abduction or elope- 

* Distinction must be constantly and carefully made 
between the wife of ceremony or status (chief wife) and 
secondary wives or concubines. 
24 



ment; are these tolerated subject to penalty? 
302. Are there any real or mock combats be- 
tween relatives of the bride and of the groom; 
to what extent does the bride or any one of her 
party resist when she is taken away by the 
groom; why is this so? 303. Are there any 
contests for the bride (right of the strongest) ? 
304. Are there any customs of trading wives 
between separate tribes or groups ; are the arts, 
religion, traditions, etc., being largely in the 
hands of the women, transferred or accumulated 
by this system of "marrying out" (exogamy)? 

305' Who arrange the preliminaries of mar- 
riage (betrothal) ; what choice have the bride 
and groom in their marriage; what qualities 
are looked for in the selection of a wife; a con- 
cubine? 306. Is the initiative ever taken by 
the woman? 307. What is the price of a bride, 
and what causes variations in price? 308. 
Who provides a wedding entertainment, and 
what is it? 309. Describe any attention shown 
by the groom to the bride or her relatives pre- 
vious to marriage. 

310. Must the bride be a virgin; what are 
the tests of virginity and methods of securing 
it? 311. Must the bride be not a virgin; who 
deflowers her; is any reason given for this? 
312. Are there courtesans; are they marriage- 
able; are they esteemed or despised? 313^ 
When is intercourse allowed before or outside 
of marriage; is it permitted between relatives- 
25 



in-law? 314- What precautions of a supersti- 
tious nature are taken to assure luck in mar- 
riage (horoscopes, selection of lucky days, 
etc.)? 

Marriage Ceremonies. 315* Describe the wed- 
ding. 316. Has the priest or sorcerer any- 
thing to do with it? 317- Describe any cere- 
monies of purification before marriage. 318. Is 
the bride veiled; are bride and groom insulted 
by the company, and why? 319. Is there a 
"best man" or "bridesmaid"; who are these 
and what are their duties; has the former any 
privileges with the bride? 320. Is the bride 
carried off, lifted over the threshold of the 
groom's house, or otherwise treated in a really 
or apparently violent manner? 321. Are there 
any ceremonies symbolic of the future functions 
of husband and wife; of binding, taking pos- 
session, etc.; any formulas to be repeated? 
322. Is the bride or bridegroom ever repre- 
sented by proxy? 

323. Are there any licentious ceremonies 
connected with the "first night"; have any 
others than the groom a right to the bride ? 
324. Is there any expiation for marriage ? 325- 
Is the consummation of marriage put off for a 
time, and why; what do the bride and groom 
do during the period ? 326. Are there any other 
restrictions on sexual intercourse between man 
and wife? 

26 



327. Does the woman go to the man's house 
to live or vice versa? 328. Has this any effect 
on the authority of either? 329. Describe 
any ceremonies connected with the introduc- 
tion of the bride into the groom's house; any 
last services which she has to perform at home? 
330. Is there any change in a woman's dress, 
person, etc. (disfigurement) at time of mar- 
riage {i.e., any "mark of marriage")? 331. 
Are women secluded? 332. How do the wives 
regard the system in vogue {e.g., being sold); 
what is the ideal of a good wife, and do they 
try to live up to it? 333- Is pregnancy a pre- 
requisite for marriage; the birth of a child? 
334. Are there temporary or trial-marriages? 

335. Are there cases of return gifts by the 
father to the bride; which classes in the popu- 
lation do this most? 336. Are regular dow- 
ries given; by whom; to whom; what and to 
what amount? 337- Does the dowry seem to 
strengthen the marriage bond or guarantee 
good treatment to the woman? 338. Does 
the dowry or the gifts revert to the father-in- 
law, together with the woman, if she is repudi- 
ated? 339« How do women feel about their 
dowries? 

340- Is there any affection between man and 
wife, or man and concubine, and how is it 
shown? 341. Is free love outside of marriage 
allowed? 342. Is fidelity imposed upon the 
wife; the husband; does jealousy exist? 343* 
27 



How is adultery punished? 344- Do man and 
wife live alone; if not, what are the relations 
between the bride and her relatives-in-law ; 
the groom and his? 345- Distinguish the do- 
mestic duties of man and wife. 346. What is 
the form of marriage (how many wives to one 
husband ; are there concubines in addition) ; 
what reasons are given for the form of mar- 
riage?* 347. Do the wives of a man live to- 
gether or apart, and why? 348. How does 
the marriage of a widow or widower differ from 
that of those not previously married? 349. 
Are there many cases of second marriage; 
and how soon may it come after the death, 
divorce, or repudiation of a former wife or hus- 
band? 350* May slaves marry, and how does 
their marriage differ from that of free persons? 
351. How are women treated during preg- 
nancy, and how does the man act? 352. Give 
any views as to the physiology of pregnancy. 
3 53* What is the feeling concerning miscar- 
riage? 354. Is abortion artificially induced; 
why and how? 355. Detail any ceremonies or 
charms to avoid miscarriage, accident, fever, 
etc. 356. Difficulty or ease of childbirth. 357. 
Describe in detail the ceremonies attending de- 

* Distinguish carefully between pure monogamy (one 
woman to one man) and "juridic monogamy" (one 
"chief wife," together with any number of secondary 
wives or concubines). 

28 



livery; the surgical and other treatment and 
precautions; the functionaries in attendance. 
358. Is the woman segregated from the rest of 
the tribe? 359. Does her husband see her? 
360. Are surgical operations {e.g., C^sarian 
operation) resorted to; how and with what 
success? 361. Do women give way to their 
suffering in childbirth; how long does labor 
last? 362. Do many women die in childbirth; 
is it more dangerous to mother and child in case 
of early marriages; to what is the mortality 
due? 363. Do wrong presentations occur, and 
is anything done to rectify them; are there 
any superstitions about them? 364. What is 
thought of a woman who dies in childbirth? 
365. How is a new-born child treated? 366. 
What becomes of the afterbirth, etc.? 367. 
Describe any ceremonies of purification. 368. 
How soon does the woman resume her labors; 
are any ill effects apparent from lack of rest 
and recuperation ? 369. Are there any extraor- 
dinary actions on the part of the father cen- 
tring about the birth of the child? 37o. What 
is the effect on the reputation, rights, and treat- 
ment of a wife who has had a (i) healthy, (2) 
sickly, (3) still-born child? 371- What is be- 
lieved about women who have died in childbirth ; 
who have had twins ; who are barren ? 

372. Are births more common at one time 
of the year than at another; estimate the pro- 
portion of male to female births. 373- What 
29 



is the treatment of sickly or deformed children; 
of twins; of bastards? 374. Is infanticide (or 
foeticide) practised, and why; is this done 
secretly or in accordance with custom and 
openly; are young children often eaten? 375. 
Are there any ceremonies in connection with 
the newly-born child (christening, baptism, 
"redemption," marking of any kind; e.g., cir- 
cumcision)? 376. What is done if the mother 
cannot nurse the child; is this frequently the 
case? 377' How long is the period of suckling; 
and what foods are given when weaning takes 
place? 

378. Are children desired; are there any 
ways of inducing fecundity or sterility, and 
what are the effects on health? 379* Are boys 
or girls more welcome; why? 380. Discuss 
adoption ; pre valency and form, reason for, etc. 
381. Is there any especial feeling concerning 
posthumous children? 382. Has a man any 
special relations or duties toward the wife of his 
dead or childless brother? 383- Is affection 
for the child displayed on the part of any except 
the mother; how long does maternal affection 
appear to last? 384- How are children car- 
ried or cradled; and what attention is given 
to the preservation of their health? 385- De- 
scribe the treatment and discipline of children ; 
their tasks. 386. Describe the feeling and 
duties of children toward parents, and of par- 
ents toward children. 387- Who names the 
30 



child, and what determines the choice of names; 
describe any ceremonies in connection with 
naming ; are there any godparents or sponsors ? 
388. Are the names ever changed, and when 
and why? 389. Is there more than one name, 
and what do additional names signify? 390. 
Are parents ever named for their children; 
why? 

391. Is there any case of inheritance of family 
or ancestral traits {e.g., strength, etc., in a 
chief ; cunning in a sorcerer) ; are there any 
beliefs about heredity? 392. The nature of 
half-castes: fecundity, if left to themselves, or 
if recrossed with original races; improvement 
or the reverse attained by crossing; tendency 
to inherit from or to revert to either of the 
original types. 39 3^ What is the social posi- 
tion of mixed races and the attitude of the 
original races toward them? 

394. Authority in the family of: the father; 
the mother; the grandparents. 395. How is 
descent reckoned? 396. Are terms of rela- 
tionship specific and individual, or are they 
used for classes and groups, e.g., exactly what 
is meant by "father," "brother," "son," if they 
do not correspond to our own terms? Are 
any terms that are clearly defined with us am- 
biguous with them? 397* Discuss the treat- 
ment of the old; if they are killed, why? 398. 
Do they resent or approve of the treatment 
accorded them? 

31 



399' What is the form of dissolution of mar- 
riage? 400. How are divorce and repudiation 
regarded ; may the woman or man marry again 
at once? 401. Describe the lot of the widow 
or repudiated wife. 

402. What are the factors that seem to deter- 
mine the position of women ; what are the abili- 
ties and disabilities of women; state any facts 
bearing upon woman's position in the family 
and in society. 403. How are women educated ? 

404. Discuss in full the rules regarding inheri- 
tance: may women inherit; minors; illegiti- 
mate children? 405. May the latter be "made 
legitimate"? 406. Define the rights of inheri- 
tance of the (i) eldest, (2) youngest son. 407. 
Does testamentary power exist in any form; 
power to divide goods before death? 408. Is 
the father ever dispossessed by the son; how 
and why? 

409. How far do terms of relationship extend; 
do they differ according as a man or woman 
addresses or is addressed? 410. Is blood kin- 
ship a strong bond between separate families? 

411. May relationship be artificially established ? 

412. Does blood relationship take form in any 
political or semi-political union (clan, gens, etc.) ? 

413. Is there any bodily or other ornamenta- 
tion, mark, or mutilation that enables members 
of clans or groups to recognize relationship? 
describe these fully. 414. Describe any occa- 
sions upon which the whole of the blood kin 

32 



are brought together for action or for celebra- 
tion. 415. Brotherhoods: are they established 
artificially by an actual exchange of blood or 
otherwise? describe any such ceremony. 416. 
Are there any ceremonies of eating or drinking 
together (or of exchange, or modification of 
name ; of mutual gifts) which bring about the 
same relation? 

417. Are there combinations of clans or gentes 
into larger groups; describe. 418. In what 
position does the family stand with reference 
to the larger group? 419. Describe any joint- 
family establishments. 420. What is the feel- 
ing for ancestry and genealogy; is the latter 
carefully preserved; how and for how long? 
421. Are genealogies of animals kept? 

422. Population: is it growing, declining, 
or at a standstill? 423. Estimate the birth 
and death-rate (per thousand per annum) and 
the average number of children to a marriage. 
424. Is fecundity highly esteemed, and are 
there any means taken, superstitious or other, 
to increase it? 425. Which of the following 
checks to the growth of population are effec- 
tive: war; accidents; attacks of wild beasts, 
reptiles, etc.; sickness; periods of enforced 
abstinence from food; artificial methods of 
restricting births, or ill effects of the latter? 
426. Which classes in the population are most 
prolific ? 

427. Estimate the average length of life. 
33 



428. What is the proportion of the sexes at 
birth and at various age periods? 429. Are 
there many old or physically or mentally inca- 
pacitated people? 



GRATIFICATION 

Ornament. 430» Describe any ornaments 
worn. 431. How and where are they attached 
to the person; are they removable; are various 
sizes used at various ages? 432. If attached 
by piercing the flesh, describe methods of pierc- 
ing, securing position, mending torn flesh, etc. 
433- Have any ornaments any special signifi- 
cance, e.g., tribal or national character? 434- 
At what age are adornments first used; and on 
what occasion employed most ; least? 435- Do 
men or women adorn themselves more? 436. 
Is there any sense of shame in insufficient 
adornment? 

437- Describe any customs of painting or 
anointing the body; why is this done? 438. 
On what occasions is painting resorted to, and 
when is it omitted? 439. What colors are used; 
is the mixing of colors to form new shades un- 
derstood? 440. What designs are used, and 
have they any special significance? 441. Are 
the teeth colored, and how? 

442. Is the body scarred, and for what pur- 
34 



pose? 443. Describe the age, method, occa- 
sion, patterns, etc., of scarring. 444. Describe 
the methods, purpose, occasion, time needed 
for, effects, etc., of tattooing. 445. Who does 
it; what are the designs; are they reproduced 
from memory or from patterns, and with what 
fidelity? 446. Does the tattooed body give 
the impression of nakedness? 447. Do pat- 
terns of clothes ever recall tattoo patterns, etc. ? 
448. Describe, along above lines, any deforma- 
tions or mutilations of the head, ears, nose, 
teeth, hands, feet, genitals, etc., that are re- 
garded as ornamental. 449. Are there any 
inconveniences or ill effects on health from any 
of the above operations {e.g., cranial deforma- 
tion)? 450- Is there any conscious selection 
or preservation of infants that approach the 
popular type, or any attempt to mould them 
toward any general (and artificial) standard 
of beauty? 451. Are teeth ever filled or false? 
452. Are the hair, beard, eyebrows, etc., re- 
moved; when, how, and why? 453. Is the 
beard a mark of importance? 454. Describe 
the razor. 455. Are hair and beard colored? 
456. Describe methods of dressing the hair, 
preserving the head-dress, {e.g., by use of sleep- 
ing-stools), etc. 

457. Are there any dolls or puppets? 458. 
What useful or useless animals are kept as 
pets; are any animals regarded as insignia of 
rank? 

35 



459- Describe in detail any fashions; who set 
them; is fashion more or less important than 
with us? 460. What is done to win glory and 
reputation (e.g., warring, head-hunting, accu- 
mulation of wealth, assumption of magical and 
other powers, etc.)? 461. How is boasting re- 
garded? 

462. Describe any contests or games played. 
463. Is there any element of gambling in them, 
and is it indispensable to their popularity? 464. 
Are stakes high; what things may be staked 
{e.g., personal liberty, others' liberty, life, etc.)? 
465. Does suicide ever result from gambling, 
and in what way? 

466. Is there any acting; any dramatic or 
semi-dramatic performances; any dialogues or 
set forms? 467. Are there special actors; are 
they of both sexes? 468. On what occasions 
are such performances held? 469- Describe 
any dances: occasions for, etc. 47o- Are they 
attended with outbursts of excitement like 
that of intoxication? 471. Describe any songs 
or other musical performances. 472. What 
tones, intervals, and general musical technique 
are known? 473. Describe any musical in- 
struments and methods of playing them; are 
resonators commonly used? 474. Is there any 
musical notation? 475. Is music supposed to 
have any magical effects? 476. What is the 
native opinion of European music? 

477. What animals are trained to race or 
36 



fight; are the latter artificially armed? 478. 
Describe the favorite athletic and other games 
and pastimes; during what part of the year 
is gaming most prevalent? 479. Give a de- 
scription, as full as possible, of native fine arts, 
feeling for symmetry, beauty, etc. 480. Is 
there any feeling for natural scenery, etc., or 
is the useful only regarded as beautiful? 481. 
What colors are distinguished by names, and 
what appears to govern their selection? 482. 
Are drawing and sculpture grotesque or con-' 
ventionalized, and what appears to be the rea- 
son for this? 

483. Describe or reproduce any native folk- 
lore or literature; any jests, plays on words, 
and the like. 484- Who compose or repeat 
these stories or verses, and when? 485. What 
is the reputation of bards, tale-tellers, actors, 
etc. ? 486. Are there any regular poetic or rhe- 
torical forms {e.g., meter, rhyme, etc.)? 487. Is 
there any peculiar, mystic, or ancient language 
or words used in poetry? 



RELIGIOUS AND SUPERSTITIOUS IDEAS 
AND USAGES 

488. Is there any idea of cause and effect, or 
is it simply agency and effect? 489. Is the 
regular in nature, or the irregular, the object 
37 



of attention or reflection? 490. Is there any 
conception of chance or luck; catalogue any 
contrasts or opposites {e.g., right and left), one 
of which is lucky, the other unlucky? 491. 
Granted the premisses, are conclusions drawn 
logically? 

492. Is death feared; how is it explained? 

493. Are there any attempts to explain birth? 

494. Which of these two events appears to 
have awakened more speculation? 495. How 
do the natives explain loss of consciousness: 
in (i) fainting fits, (2) epileptic or other seiz- 
ures, (3) sleep, (4) delirium? 

496. Are there right and wrong ways to lie 
while sleeping; what results from lying in the 
wrong way? 497. Do the natives dream often ; 
is this due to the quality of food or hardships 
of life? 498. Are dreams sought by fasting 
or other means? 499. Are they regarded as 
real or unreal? 500. Are there any beliefs 
concerning the soul, ghosts, etc., that seem to 
be derived from dreams? 501- Are dreams 
prophetic; symbolic; can any one interpret 
them? 502. Are there any special beliefs con- 
cerning erotic dreams? 503. Are visions or 
hallucinations common, and under what cir- 
cumstances? 

Animism. 504. What is the first meaning 
of the native word for soul? 505. How are 
souls conceived of; what relation to the body, 

38 



where localized, and why in these particular 
parts; how many are there to a single person 
and how do they differ? 506. Are there any 
beliefs concerning a man's relation to his soul 
during life? 507- Describe the soul's method 
of entering and leaving a body, and its reasons 
for doing so. 508. Is it lucky to be present 
at the death of another? 509. Are the dying 
or mortally sick abandoned, and why? 510. 
Are there any shameful or unfortunate deaths, 
and what effect do they have on the souls ? 511. 
May souls appear under more than one form; 
if the dead are seen in dreams, are these the 
souls of the dead? 512. Are souls reborn, and 
into whom? 513. Do animals and things have 
souls: is there a belief in transmigration, and 
what reasons are given for it? 

514. What becomes of the soul at death? 
describe in full the conception of the future 
life.* 515. Are there any facts or ceremonies 
that prove the other world to be like to or 
different from this? 516. Where is the other 
world; how and when do the souls go there; 
can they return ; do they ever die in the spirit- 
world; do they feel joy or pain; is there any 
native idea of reward or punishment in the 
future life? 517. Are souls ever eaten; by 
whom and why? 518. Can they be caught, 

* Distinguish carefully between future life and immor- 
tality. 

39 



and by what devices? 519. Is there any 
' ' resurrection " ; " eternal youth ' ' ? 

520. Describe the nature of the spirit -world 
(dismal or pleasant). 521. Are there any 
means of preventing souls from leaving it (e.g., 
streams of water or fire, bridges guarded by 
spirits or animals, etc.), and how are these 
hindrances passed at the entrance? 522. Has 
any one ever been to the spirit-world and re- 
turned? 523. Is there any tribunal that passes 
on the lives of mortals? 524. What determines 
one's happiness or misery in the beyond; have 
the priests any power over a man's fate in his 
future life? 525. Is there any such place as 
purgatory? 

526. Is there any connection between the 
continued existence of the soul and the non- 
disintegration of the body? 527. Describe any 
processes of drying or mummifying the body. 

Funeral, etc. 528. What precautions are 
taken by men to prevent a return of the souls. 
529. Describe the funeral in all detail. 530. 
What becomes of the dead person's property; 
house; wife or wives; name, etc.? 53 1- Are 
the dead ever spoken ill of? 532. If there is a 
taboo on the name of the dead person, does 
this have any effect in modifying language ? 533. 
What is done with the one who causes the death ? 

534. Describe the disposition of the body 
after death ("laying-out," clothing, guarding, 
40 



embalming, etc.) ; burial (position and posture 
of the body ; in the ground, on scaffold) ; pres- 
ervation of parts of the body by mourners; 
etc. 535- Does the attention given to the 
body vary in different cases, and for what rea- 
son? 536. Describe the usages, ceremonies, and 
dress of mourning; what are the duties in this 
line of the heir, and of the widow? 

537. Are bodies disturbed after burial; why; 
are grave-robbers (of body, gifts, or belongings) 
common or feared? 538. Describe any me- 
morial structure to the dead; for what pur- 
poses, in general, are memorial structures 
erected, e.g., in commemoration of events, 
miracles, etc. 539- Are objects buried in the 
foundation or at the foundation ceremonies? 

Daimonism and Daimonology. 540. What is 
the relation between the spirits or gods and the 
souls of the dead? 541. Have the former much 
influence on life? 542. Are there many spirits, 
and where are they localized? 543^ Is there 
any special home of the gods apart from that of 
the dead? 544. Are the spirits preponderat- 
ingly good or evil? 545. Are there conflicts 
of good and evil spirits; are the former the 
object of much attention? 546. Are spirits all 
of equal power and importance? 

547. Explain the nature of the gods; are 
they modelled on men (anthropomorphism) ; 
and how do they differ from men? 548. Can 
41 



any men or animals see spirits ? 549. Do spirits 
marry mortals and have offspring; what is the 
nature of such offspring? 550. Do they have 
or assume animal forms, either in whole or in 
part? 55i« Do they die, feel pain, chagrin, etc., 
or are they always happy? 552. How are they 
supported, and how do they pass their time? 
553. Have they a society, industrial organiza- 
tion, property, marriage, government, classes, 
etc. — if so, describe these on the lines laid down 
in this manual. 554. How do the morals of 
the gods compare with those of contemporary 
men? 

555. Is it clear that the gods are or are not 
deified ancestors? 556. What do the names of 
the gods mean (e.g., "the oldest one")? 557. 
Are there any distinctly class, caste, family, or 
personal gods ; what does a familiar or guardian 
spirit do for a man? 558. Are there any fairies 
or kindly spirits of such a nature? 559. Is 
there any deification of foods or drink; of 
functions of the body or of society (e.g., repro- 
duction, justice)? 560. Are there special gods 
presiding over special functions, activities, dex- 
terities (reproduction, war, trade, metal-work- 
ing, etc.)? 

561. Are any of the gods merely the powers 
of nature and how are they proved so to be? 
562. Describe beliefs about the winds, volcanic 
eruptions, earthquakes, etc. 563* Is there a 
creator; is he the first man or original ancestor? 
42 



564. Describe native ideas of the origin of man; 
concerning white man, when first seen. 565. 
Rehearse any myths about the gods, their 
birth, death, fate {e.g., myths of the sunrise, 
ecHpses, etc.) ; is there any god-man and what 
was his origin? 

566. Do any native stories contain elements 
that are clearly of foreign origin ; what are they 
and whence derived? 

567. What rights have the spirits that men 
must attend to ; what is the penalty of neglect ? 

568. Are the spirits (i) avoided; how; (2) 
banished ; how ; (3) propitiated and won over ? * 

569. Describe any forms of baptism, ceremo- 
nial cleansing, etc. 57o- May one spirit be 
balanced against another? 571. Are there 
spirits representing opposite and irreconcila- 
ble functions or qualities (e.g., good and bad; 
light and darkness) ; and are they believed to 
be constantly in conflict? (For further queries 
on banishment and control of spirits, see 
Magic, p. 49). 572. What offerings are made 
to the recently dead? 573. How do the food 
and other articles sacrificed to spirits differ 
from the food, etc., in common use? 574. Is 
incense used; why; do the gods like the smell 
of burning fat? 575. How do the spirits take 

* It is not easy to distinguish between bona-fide spirits 
and the souls of the recently dead; hence a certain amount 
of seeming repetition is inevitable. 
43 



or assimilate the objects sacrificed; is there 
any trickery about the disappearance of ex- 
posed or sacrificed objects? 576. Are sacri- 
fices made in the form of bargains with the 
spirits ; are the latter bound by such contracts ; 
what is done if they are broken? 

577. What are the occasions of sacrifice? 
578. Is the sacrifice accompanied by a feast; 
is the latter actual or merely ceremonial {i.e., 
tasting) ; what parts of the victim are eaten, 
and what parts ceremonially eaten or tasted? 
579- What is done with the rest? 580. Detail 
any criteria in the selection of victims, 581. 
Describe any dress, evolutions, etc., charac- 
teristic of sacrifice; is nudity ever demanded 
and under what circumstances? 582. Are 
there any sacrifices of the first (first fruits, 
first children, etc.), or at first times; and for 
what assigned reason; may the harvest, for 
example, be tasted before sacrifice of the first 
grain is made? 583. Describe any supersti- 
tions, sacrifices, prayers, or ceremonies con- 
nected with eating ; is eating done in public ; is 
there any "right" order in helping or passing 
food? 

584. Is human sacrifice practised regularly 
or exceptionally? 585- Is there any actual or 
ceremonial eating of the human victim? 586. 
Describe the type of human victims ; age, social 
position, physical or mental peculiarities, etc. 
587. Are there any ceremonies connected with 
44 



the human victim preceding sacrifice? 588. Is 
there any "redemption" of or substitution 
for the human victim, so that the latter Hves; 
are effigies employed in sacrifice? 589. Is 
there exuvial sacrifice {i.e., of relatively unim- 
portant parts of the body: nails, hair, teeth, 
finger-joints, etc.)? 590- Is circumcision or 
incision practised; castration? 591. Are drops 
of blood sacrificed? 592. What reasons are 
given for exuvial sacrifice? 

593- Is circumcision an ancient custom; is 
it practised upon both sexes; at what age and 
occasion, and what is asserted to be the object 
of the ceremony? 594. Give details under 
the following heads : performer of the ceremony ; 
method and instrument; subsequent dressing 
of wound (if different from the treatment of 
an ordinary wound) ; exact part removed ; 
other incisions, scarring, etc., done at the same 
time ; any attendant ceremonies, renunciations, 
seclusion, etc. ; what is done with the part cut 
off; what supposed ill effects of omission ? 595. 
Is it ever done ceremonially (not actually) ; or 
after death ; what reasons are given for this ? 
596. Has it any relation to hygiene; fecundity 
in marriage? 

597. Are the gods or spirits ever cheated in 
the quality of the sacrifice; do they ever re- 
ceive merely images or pictures of real objects ; 
are any reasons given for this? 598. Describe 
sacrifices made in connection with the erection 
45 



of a building, bridge, or other construction; 
are victims ever buried alive under such cir- 
cumstances; what reason is given? 599. Is 
there any obscenity in religious ceremonies; 
any erratic, morbid, or horrible elements? 

600. Are there any vows conditional upon 
service rendered by a spirit or god? 601. Are 
there any thank-offerings (sacrifices for unex- 
pected and unasked favors)? 602. Is there 
any penance, individual or public; may the 
wrath of the spirits be so averted? 603. Is 
there any form of "fatalism"? 

604. Is there any glorification of the gods in 
song, recitation, etc., and are the gods fond of 
this? 605. Reproduce any such songs or reci- 
tations. 

606. Are oaths taken by the gods or any 
other guarantors; are they readily broken, 
and what are the consequences? 607. Do 
they replace written and sworn contracts with 
us? 608. What is the form of the oath? 609. 
Are the spirits or gods appealed to to settle 
disputes; are there any ways of discovering 
their will, such as lot-casting, ordeal trials, 
duels, etc.? 610. Are these accompanied by 
any religious ceremonies or invocations? 611. 
Describe in detail any sacraments or ceremonial 
purifications, with their objects. 

612. Are there any special sacrificial robes, 
implements, etc. ; are these ever used for any 
other purpose? 613. Name and describe any 
46 



objects, ceremonies, etc., connected with relig- 
ious service which differ from those in actual 
use. 

614. What is the typical form of prayer; 
what attitudes are taken; what is asked for? 
615. Do prayers resemble promises or vows; 
do the gods expect a "fair return"? 616. Are 
there any prayer- wheels or prayer-sticks? 617. 
Is there any form of dedication of one's per- 
son or possessions to the gods? 

618. Are religious exercises localized in par- 
ticular places, and what determines the choice? 
619. Describe the shrine, altar or temple; are 
they inviolate at all times (e.g., in war)? 620. 
What is the religious center of the house? 621. 
Is there any right of sanctuary (for suppliants, 
strangers, or fugitives) ; are there any places 
where, for religious reasons, peace must be 
observed; how is it enforced, and with what 
success? 622. Is treasure deposited in the 
temples ; why ; do the priests ever lend money 
or treasure? 623. Describe carefully any prop- 
erty belonging to the shrine or its tenders. 624. 
Describe any insignia, trophies, figures, repre- 
sentations, etc., to be found in the holy places. 
625. Who may enter the various parts of these 
places, and in what manner? 

626. Are any rites mystic; which are public 

and which not? 627. Are there any set forms 

or rituals that are "right," all others being 

wrong? 628. Is any priestly jargon in vogue; 

47 



any ancient words or formulas; do the priests 
or people understand their meaning? 629. What 
is the consequence of slight errors in employ- 
ing the ritual? 

630. What is the disposition of the spirits 
or gods toward man ; in what ways chiefly do 
men incur their displeasure? 631. Do they 
look with disfavor on human prosperity; do 
men try to appear less prosperous than they 
really are? 632. What is sin? 633. Is re- 
morse felt for the act, or simply regret at hav- 
ing incurred consequences which might have 
been avoided? 634. May a man escape the 
consequences of sin, and how; what are these 
consequences? 635. Is there any confession 
and gratis forgiveness? 636. May sin or its 
consequences be laid on another person or 
upon an animal {e.g., vicarious sacrifice; scape- 
goat); how is this done; who is the victim, 
and what becomes of him? 637. Do the gods 
or spirits punish crimes against society? 

638. What are the means of questioning the 
future; may any one do it? 639. Are dreams 
effective in prophecy? 640. Describe in de- 
tail any omens. 641. What importance is 
assigned to the following: thunder and light- 
ning, and other extraordinary meteorological 
phenomena; earthquakes; "blood-rain"; flight 
of birds; actions of animals and plants; the 
position of the organs in the victims of the 
sacriflce; involuntary or accidental actions of 
48 



men (coughing, sneezing, spitting, spilling of 
food, breakage of utensils or weapons, etc.)? 
642. Is there any form of star- worship or 
astrology; how are horoscopes cast? 

Magic. 643. Is magic theurgic (i.e., to com- 
pel the spirits), or does it work directly upon 
natural objects? 644. Is it accompanied by 
sacrifice? 645. Why do the spirits have to 
yield to magic? 646. Are there any magical 
words, formulas, or names? Reproduce any 
spells or charms and describe any amulets or 
other objects which have magical powers; 
describe in detail any magical ceremonies. 
647. Can spirits be conjured into objects, ani- 
mals, or persons; what kinds of spirits are 
these? 648. If spirits become subject to man, 
is it because some stronger spirit acts through 
the man? 649. Are objects in nature wor- 
shipped for themselves or because of the spirit 
in them? 650. Is some magic lawful and 
other unlawful ("black art" versus legitimate 
"white magic"); what distinction is made? 
651. How may a person become the victim of 
magic? 652. What is done with the leavings 
or refuse from meals; from the human body? 
653- What is the effect upon a person's well- 
being of believing that he is bewitched? 654. 
Do the natives object to being sketched or 
photographed, and why? 655. Is blessing or 
cursing effective of its object? 656. Do the 
49 



natives believe in the "evil eye"? 657. What 
parts of the person, what acts, etc., do they 
try to shield from the evil eye (e.g., the organs 
of generation, eating, evacuation, etc.)? 

658. Describe any examples of "sympathetic 
magic" (i.e., any methods of producing wished- 
for effects by a previous rehearsal or imitation 
of these effects, as in the "buffalo dance"). 
659. What is the relation between magic and 
miracle? 

The Sorcerer or Priest and His Activities. 660. 

Do men deal personally with the gods or 
spirits; why can they not do so? 661. Which 
of the following qualifications for the office of 
medicine-man are found: physical peculiari- 
ties; superior mental powers; sleight of hand; 
ventriloquism ; nervous temperament ; hysteria ; 
insanity; epilepsy; vivid dreams; visions or 
hallucinations; hypnotic power over self or 
others? 662. Are any of these or other pecu- 
liarities or morbid states affected or artificially 
induced; how? 663. How are the insane, de- 
formed, or monstrous regarded and treated? 

664. Describe the professional equipment of 
the sorcerer. 665. Does the drum or rattle 
produce any effect on the senses of the audi- 
ence? 666. Describe any trickery or other 
methods in use among the medicine-men. 667. 
Do they prophesy ; are their prophecies definite 
or ambiguous ; may they be proved wrong, and, 
50 



if so, does it destroy their prestige ; do prophecies 
ever come true, and if so, is it accidental? 

668. Name the chief duties or functions of the 
sorcerer or shaman? 669. What payment does 
he receive; is he wealthy? 670. How does 
his mode of life differ from that of other people ? 
describe any austerities or ascetic practices of 
the priest {e.g., meditation, avoidance of wash- 
ing parts of the body, fasting, self-torture, and 
the like). 

671. How is sickness explained? 672. Are 
the sick abandoned? 673. What has the sor- 
cerer to do with diagnosis and treatment? 
674. Describe in careful detail any cases of 
native surgery (instruments, anesthetics, pre- 
vention of blood-poisoning, etc.) ; are these 
operations successful? 675. Are any medi- 
cines given, and what are they? 676. Describe 
any rational methods of treating bodily in- 
juries and ailments; what do the surgeons 
know of anatomy, etc., and how did they 
obtain their knowledge? 677. Is there any 
way of giving disease away (unloading it on 
some one else)? 678. What is done for poi- 
soned wounds? 

679. Name the principal ailments; the most 
fatal ones; the principal immunities from dis- 
ease. 680. Is the nature of epidemics under- 
stood? 681. Discuss the vital powers and the 
sensitiveness to pain, of the natives. 682. 
Is recuperation after an accident quicker than 
51 



with a European? 683. How is idiocy or 
lunacy treated? 684. Are there any aids to 
vision, hearing, etc.? 

685. If treatment is rnerely hocus-pocus, 
describe it in detail, stating object, effect, 
duration, etc., of the operation. 686. What 
is the attitude of the patient toward the doctor? 
687. How is failure explained, and does a series 
of failures disqualify a doctor? 

688. Does the medicine-man make rain? 
describe any ceremonies with this object in 
view. 689. Do the sorcerers study the weather 
conditions; i.e., do they know or guess? 690. 
Is it true that medicine-men rarely die natural 
deaths, because they are held responsible for 
errors and set upon by the people? 691. 
Are medicine-men feared after death, and how 
are their corpses treated? 692. Describe the 
political power of the medicine-man; his atti- 
tude towards rivals; his social position. 

693. Are there any medicine societies? 694. 
How do they preserve their knowledge? 695. 
How do they select novices; is the priest's 
power hereditary in any cases, and how is it 
delegated from man to man, if there is no special 
initiation? 696. Describe the initiation. 697. 
How are the young men trained; at what age 
does initiation or training begin? 698. What 
ceremonies, insignia, methods of life, social 
position, reputation, etc., are characteristic of 
such societies? 

52 



Fetiches. 699. Are any of the following re- 
garded as temporary or permanent abodes of 
spirits: inanimate objects; elements such as 
water, fire, wind, atmosphere, sky; animals; 
men? 700. What qualities are taken to indicate 
the indwelling of ("possession" by) a spirit (i) 
in inanimate nature, (2) in plants and animals, 
(3) in men? 701. Are any of the following 
holy, closely connected with spirits, or "pos- 
sessed" by them: the fire; hearth; grave; 
threshold; stove or chimney; falling meteors; 
market-place; meeting-place of the council; 
any days in the week, month, or year; the dog, 
horse, snake, or other animals; certain trees; 
mountains or hills? 702. Are there any mira- 
cle-working fetiches; are they secluded from 
the public? 

703. Are there any sacred words, numbers, 
:olors, sounds, symbols, or the like; any 
'round numbers"; any lucky or unlucky 
vvords and numbers? 704- How are old stone 
implements no longer in use regarded when 
found? 705. Describe any special uses of 
stone or antiquated implements. 706. Dis- 
cuss the heavenly bodies in religion. 707. 
Has fire a soul or personality; does it get old 
or dirty or "unclean"? 708. Is there a per- 
petual fire, or is it put out and rekindled on 
certain occasions; describe such ceremonies. 
709. Is fire used as a purifier; how? 710. 
Describe any ceremonies of fire-worship. 
53 



Totemism. 711. Are there any plants or 
animals which are regarded by the society or 
the individual or by either sex as in some 
way intimately connected with its life? 712. 
Why are they so sacred? 713. Has the tribal 
or individual name anything to do with this 
totem object? 714- Is it, if an animal, regu- 
larly or ever killed, eaten, kept in confinement, 
etc.? 715- Where do tribes, individuals, or 
sexes get their totems? 716. What differences 
are there in the relations of a person to the 
totem before, at, and after puberty? 717. 
Discuss the relation of a man to his own, the 
society's, and other people's totems. 718. 
What has the totem name to do with (i) 
marriage, (2) sexual intercourse? 719. What 
marks of honor are shown to this totem; is 
it ever dressed like a man? 720. Does the 
totem aid the tribe; how? 721. Is sacrifice 
ever made to it? 722. Is there any bodily or 
other mark whereby a man of one totem can 
recognize a member of another or of the same 
group? 

723- Develop, as far as possible, native ideas 
of cosmology (i.e., the plan and construction 
of the universe, localization, and explanation 
of movements of the heavenly bodies, form of 
the earth, construction of the sky, etc.). 724. 
Are monstrous or impossible living beings be- 
lieved in; whence does this belief seem to have 
come? 725. Detail any special knowledge or 
54 



pseudo-knowledge of the natives which has 
not been mentioned. 

726. What is the feeHng toward other relig- 
ions and their followers ; is there any religious 
persecution? 727. Is special inspiration or 
"revelation" believed in? 728. Is there any- 
feeling of being the "chosen people"? 729. 
Are mutual additions to and modifications 
between native religions easily made; why? 



THE SOCIETAL SYSTEM 

730. Detail any cases where the discipline 
or authority of war is carried over into time of 
peace. 73 1- Of what elements is a tribe com- 
posed (families, clans, etc.) and how are they 
represented in the government? 732. Is there 
total absence of government, except such as 
exists in the family group? 733- Is there any 
societal coherence, or do the components of the 
society dissolve and split up from time to time? 
734. What appear to be the unifying or dis- 
persive factors? 735. Are discipline and sub- 
ordination believed in as factors in the social 
weal? 

736. Is there any trace of "democratic 
equality"; if so, in whose hands is the author- 
ity in time of need? 737. Is there anything 
approaching the "village community"? de- 
55 



scribe in full. 738. Is the system oligarchical; 
who are the oligarchs, what is their power, and 
how did they attain their position ? 739. What 
is their attitude toward each other? 740. Are 
they all on the same level of power; if not, on 
what does distinction rest; are the rest of the 
people on a substantial equality? 

The Chief. 741. Are all on an equality save 
one, or are there grades of power under a mon- 
arch? 742. Are there ever more chiefs than 
one; what are their respective spheres of 
power (e.g., war-chief versus peace-chief)? 
743. What is the title of the chief? 744. Is 
the chief ever a woman or selected by women ? 
745. Catalogue the qualities leading to selection 
as chief {e.g., age, wealth, magic power, repu- 
tation for bravery, cunning, etc.). 746. Over 
how many people does the chief have sway? 
747. Which of the following powers, and to 
what degree, has the chief over his subjects: 
life and death; confiscation of wives, children, 
slaves, personal property or land; banishment; 
capricious injury; mutilation; enforcement of 
services or attendance at "court," etc.? 748. 
What special licenses or immunities {e.g., in 
marriage) has the chief? 749. Are his powers 
submitted to willingly or not, and for what 
reason? 750. Are revolutions frequent; do 
they affect only the individual ruler or do they 
alter the system of government? 751. Is the 
56 



chieftainship a position of ease, or is it onerous? 
752. What duties are demanded of the chief 
(self-denial, arduous labor of any kind, austeri- 
ties, self-tortures, generosity and hospitality, 
etc.), and what effect are these supposed to 
have on the public weal? 753. Are there any 
taboos (on the name; inviolability, etc.) in 
connection with the chief? 

754. Is the chief a fetich {i.e., more than 
human); how is this shown? 755. Can he be 
deposed, and how? 756. Can he do wrong; if 
he makes errors, does he suffer for them him- 
self, or does some one else; who? 757. What 
is his special connection with the religion of the 
tribe; is he the chief priest? 758. What is 
the manner of the people toward the chief and 
their behavior in his presence? 759. Describe 
any court, symbols, insignia, etc., connected 
with the chief. 760. How is the ruler repre- 
sented in absence {e.g., by representatives, a 
signet, or the like)? 

761. Is there any check or limitation to the 
power of the chief? describe any council of 
the sub-chiefs or assembly of the people. 762. 
Describe any methods by which a chief may 
be coerced. 763. Discuss freedom of speech 
in assembly or council; the influence of age, 
experience, oratory, etc. 764. What kind of 
oratory is most effective? 765. Is the chief 
checked by any of the following factors, and 
to what extent: custom; public opinion; fash- 
57 



ion; religion; law; fear of deposition? 766. Is 
the chief ruled by favorites ; who are they ; how 
is he influenced? 767. Is there a "premier"; 
what real independent power has he; who is 
he, and what are his functions? 768. If sub- 
chiefs quarrel, how are such disputes settled? 

769. What is the attitude of the chief toward 
possible rivals or successors? 770. Are throne 
disputes frequent? 77 1- Can the ruler desig- 
nate his successor, or does succession follow 
certain rules; what are they; does a nephew 
ever succeed in preference to a son ; are women 
or minors eligible? 772. Compare inheritance 
of property with succession to the chieftainship 
or kingship. 773. Are there regencies or inter- 
regna; on what occasions; what effect on the 
life of the society? 

774. When does "minority" end? 775* De- 
scribe initiation into the social bond under the 
following heads (distinguishing according to 
sex): age; health; endurance shown; prepara- 
tion for the ceremony; place, time, and dura- 
tion of the ceremony; visible signs or marks 
of having been initiated; secrecy of the cere- 
mony; presence of the opposite sex; grades of 
initiation and their significance. 776. Is there 
any ceremony of putting the novice to death; 
what explanation? 777. To what end is initia- 
tion essential? 778. Are there secret societies; 
describe fully. 779. Do women enter them, or 
do they have corresponding societies of their 
58 



own? 780. What is the importance of belong- 
ing; will the natives make great sacrifices to 
this end? 

Classes. 781. Are there classes or castes? 
782. Describe fully any distinctions between 
classes, e.g., physical (color, hair, stature, etc.) ; 
mental; of character (courage, slyness, etc.); of 
dexterities; of employments; wealth; language; 
religion; general manners and customs; duties 
and privileges. 783. Are there any indications 
of previous conquest as the ground of present 
distinction in class? 784. Describe the barriers 
that prevent general mixture or amalgamation 
of the population; are these weakening or not? 
785. Is there any chance of rising in class ? 786. 
Is there much hostility or contempt between 
classes? 787- Is inter-class marriage allowed; 
what is the status of the children of such mar- 
riages (e.g., between a noble and a slave) ? 788. 
Does intermarriage have much effect in break- 
ing down the other barriers; how? 789. Is 
there any patron and client relation; any pau- 
perism; vagabondage; mendicancy? 790. Are 
there any cases of self-destitution or voluntary 
slavery, and for what reason? 791. Discuss 
the power of wealth as compared with its power 
in civilized societies. 

792. Have some of the classes duties toward 
others? 793. How do people become slaves? 
794. Are slaves mostly alien or fellow-tribes- 
59 



men; is any distinction of treatment made on 
this basis? 795- What is the proportion of 
slaves in the total population? 796. Is slavery 
domestic or plantation slavery; are masters 
and slaves widely separated in mode of life? 
797* How are slaves treated, under the follow- 
ing heads: security of life; possibility of 
marriage; separation of families; position of 
children; property -holding ; possibility of re- 
demption through self or others? 798. May 
slaves possess slaves? 799. Are slaves marked 
or branded in any way? 800. What is done 
with them in time of war? 801. Do they carry 
arms and train as warriors in time of peace? 
802. How are relations between a free woman 
and a slave regarded? 803. Are men ever 
slaves of things (amulets, temples, etc.)? 804. 
What is the position of freedmen (those who 
have been given, or who have purchased, free- 
dom) as respects rights, social position, mar- 
riage, position of children, etc.? 

Customs, etc. 805. Give illustrations of the 
force of custom. 806. How are the records of 
ancestral customs transmitted? 807. Are there 
any customs that seem to act directly against 
the material interest of (i) individuals, (2) the 
society (e.g., limitations of, or taboos on, the 
food-supply)? 808. Are there any customs or 
taboos that favor peace? 

809. Describe the forms of etiquette, saluta- 
60 



tion, etc., showing how they differ at different 
times and between different persons (e.g., after 
long absence, between equals or unequals, 
etc.). 8io. Give any example of "bad form". 
8 1 1. State any rules of right conduct between 
people; how are coarse conversation, drunken- 
ness, impudence on the part of the young, etc., 
regarded? 812. What forms of treatment and 
address are regarded as insults, and how are 
they met? 813. Are there any stereotyped or 
obsolete formulas used ceremonially or offi- 
cially in address; any avoidance of certain 
words under certain circumstances? 

814. Give the words meaning right and 
wrong, good and bad. 815. Are there any 
precepts of conduct inculcated in the young; 
what are they and what is their origin? 816. 
Are there any legends glorifying great ideals 
of virtue, etc.? 817. Is lying or breaking of 
an agreement always right or wrong, or simply 
so on occasions; name the latter. 818. Is 
there anything sordid about accumulation of 
property? 819. Is there any feeling for human 
life? 820. Is abstemiousness in eating and 
other forms of self-gratification approved or 
vice versa? 821. How does public opinion 
judge of "unnatural crimes"? 822. Distin- 
guish crimes and wrong acts; state the connec- 
tion between religion and morals. 823. De- 
scribe any legendary law-giver. 

824. Name the chief virtues (e.g., bravery, 
61 



endurance, revengefulness, recklessness, etc.)- 
825. Name any other important features in 
the code of morals. 

Law. 826. What are the chief crimes and 
their punishments (murder, assault, rape, seduc- 
tion, adultery, arson, trespass, fraud, theft, 
treason, lese-majeste) ? 827. For what crimes 
is death the penalty? 828. How are fines col- 
lected? 829. Is imprisonment ever employed; 
how is it enforced; with what results? 830. 
Is exile for crimes common? 831. Is the value 
of peace and order understood? 832. Distin- 
guish between wrongs to individuals and to the 
community. 833. To what degree is the indi- 
vidual righting of private wrongs forbidden; 
by whom and for what reason? 834. Is the 
law of talion or retaliation ("an eye for an eye 
and a tooth for a tooth") in full sway, or is it 
modified? 835. Name any actions that are 
crimes with us, but not with the natives in 
question. 836. How is suicide regarded; is 
there any special treatment of, or superstition 
about, the corpse or grave of a suicide? 837. 
Are there any social crimes that are punished 
by the gods or spirits ? any to which the spirits 
seem indifferent? 

838. Is justice regular or capricious? 839. Is 

there any trial where both sides are heard? 

840. Who is the judge; what is the procedure; 

is there any recognized order; any form of 

62 



appeal, and to whom? 841. Describe trials 

by ordeal, being careful to exhibit the rational 
side of the ordeal if it exists. 842. Are there 
any ways in which an inferior may coerce a 
superior {e.g., by threat of suicide)? 

843. Is it ever honorable to kill a fellow- 
tribesman; a member of an allied tribe? 844. 
When is homicide excusable or glorious? 845. 
Which are the most shameful homicides {e.g., 
patricide)? 846. Does the rule "a life for a 
life" obtain; must the murderer himself be 
killed? 847. Give all details of mock venge- 
ance where this replaces the real vendetta. 
848. If property indemnification is possible, 
state the customs or prescriptions that govern 
the amount of the indemnity for various degrees 
of bodily injury inflicted upon men of varied 
social standing. 

849. Is there a recognized criminal class 
and how is it treated? 850. Are there any 
officials resembling police; spies? 851. How 
are they recruited and maintained? 852. Is 
compulsion ever exercised to make a man take 
an office; why so? 

853. What taxes and tolls are collected; 
from whom; by whom; for what purpose; on 
what occasion? 854. Is property ever, or sys- 
tematically, concealed for fear of taxation, con- 
fiscation, or the like; are the rich persecuted? 
855' What is the public treasure and treasury? 

856. What names do the tribes give them- 
63 



selves {e.g., "men")? 857. What is their 
feeling regarding their own civilization, position, 
prosperity, happiness, etc., as compared with 
those of others? 858. Compare intertribal with 
intr atrihaX relations; is patriotism exhibited? 
859. Does co-operation within correspond with 
hostility without; what form does such hos- 
tility take? 860. Name any actions that are 
wrong when done to a fellow- tribesman, but 
right when done to an enemy. 861. What is 
the attitude toward strangers or aliens, under 
the following heads: rights of strangers; cour- 
tesy and hospitality (or the reverse) toward 
aliens; treatment as compared with enemies, 
friends, kinsfolk? 862. How is a reputation for 
hospitality regarded? 863. Is there any such 
thing as guest-friendship? 864. Under such a 
system, what does one do for a guest ; why does 
he do it; are there any mutual obligations? 
865. Are there any political or social conse- 
quences of such treatment of guests and stran- 
gers, and what are they? 

866. Are there any colonies; what is their 
relation with their mother-group in the matter 
of customs, government, good- will, etc.? 

867. Are there any tribal alliances ; and what 
are their motives? 868. Is there any attempt 
at conquest ; extension of political boundaries ? 
869. Describe the policy of such a conquering 
state; how long does such an "empire" hold 
together, and what causes its disintegration? 

64 



CONTACT AND MODIFICATION 

Questions referring to contact, with conse- 
quent modifications, of races unequally ad- 
vanced in civilization, have been occasionally 
inserted among the foregoing queries, in places 
where they seemed to be suggested by the line 
of thought. Alterations due to contact in 
respect of any one of the details of a native 
society's life are of interest to the sociologist; 
and investigators have been requested in the 
introduction to this manual to bear this aspect 
of the question constantly in mind. Observa- 
tions on the effect of contact can probably be 
made to the best advantage while reflecting 
upon actual conditions as called for in the above 
list of queries; but it has seemed best to add 
a few rather general questions covering some 
points about which there is special curiosity or 
difference of opinion. 



I. What civilized peoples get along best with 
natives, and why is this so? Do peoples of a 
less advanced civilization get on better than, 
say, Europeans; and why? 
65 



Industrial Organization. 2. Is there any case 
where the introduction of a new weapon, 
tool, food-supply, or domesticated animal {e.g., 
firearms; plough; maize; horse) has funda- 
mentally modified a society's life? State the 
effect on population; and any other important 
results. 3. Have any new cattle-diseases, or 
successful methods of treating old ones, been 
introduced, and with what results? 4. Effects 
of contact upon agricultural methods; devel- 
opment of mining; upon indigenous arts and 
processes; food-supply; methods of preparing 
and cooking food; children's foods; cannibal- 
ism; food-taboos. 5. Discuss alcoholic and 
other stimulants in relation to population, indi- 
vidual and social well-being, production, con- 
sumption, labor-supply, morals, etc. 6. What 
changes have been brought about in amount 
and style of clothing; and with what effects 
upon the individual and the society; has the 
sense of shame been modified in any way? 7. 
What changes in methods of transportation and 
trade? Is the standard of commercial honesty 
higher, and why? 8. Changes in weights and 
measures; the mechanism of exchange; count- 
ing; means of communication, etc. 9. Effect 
of contact on the slave-trade; feeling of the 
natives towards the change. 10. Have pro- 
duction and consumption been stimulated and 
diversified, and to what degree; are wants 
stronger and more varied? 11. Has a supply 
66 



LcF 



of voluntary labor been created; how; what 
is its character and regularity? 12. Has any 
means of incitement proved as efficient as sla- 
very ; in what form is compulsion now exercised? 
13. Who are the best overseers? 14. How 
has substitution (coolie-system) worked? 15. 
What wages are paid and who finally get and 
spend the earnings (e.g., the village chief or 
elders)? 16. Has the abolition of slavery been 
fully carried out; has it been a good or bad 
thing, economically considered? 17. How do 
the following penalties for shirking labor (under 
contract or otherwise) work: fines; overtime; 
imprisonment; corporal punishment? 18. Is 
the frontier-trade as lucrative as it once was; 
what are the reasons for any change? 19. 
Discuss in full any changes in the system of 
property-holding and inheritance: can the na- 
tives be brought to understand, as we do, the 
right of private property in chattels; in land? 
How and with what difficulties was land ac- 
quired (aside from conquest) from them? 20. 
To what degree, and with what results, have 
the natives assimilated what Europeans have 
to give them in the matter of material civiliza- 
tion; do they revert to old ways when pressure 
is removed, or do they maintain their advance? 
21. What enduring results have industrial 
missions to show? 22. Have wars and feuds 
been repressed or rendered less barbarous; 
how; are they, if less frequent, more deadly? 
67 



23. Do the natives make good soldiers, con- 
stables, etc.; why are they valuable or the 
reverse? 24. Has the activity of those who 
are eager to modify native modes of life (e.g., 
to force the wearing of clothing, sedentary 
habits, monogamy, etc.) ever reacted harm- 
fully upon the native society; how? 

Marriage, etc. 25. What changes in the form 
And duration of the marriage bond have been 
produced, unconsciously or with purpose, during 
contact? 26. What obstetrical aid has been 
rendered to native women, and with what 
results? 27. Has the position of woman been 
raised; how? 28. Sum up the effects of con- 
tact on population; do the natives die off or 
decline in energy; what have alterations made 
in their environment (homesickness) to do with 
tnis? 29. What alterations have been worked 
in styles and fashion; what results of crusades 
tigainst bodily deformation, etc.? 30. Has 
gambling been stimulated; any other wasteful 
ajid uneconomic means of self -gratification ? 
3«. Is there any native folk-lore, or songs, 
dealing with the alien race and its appearance 
(•n the scene? 

Religion, etc. 32. State candidly the effect 
cj Contact upon the nature and popularity of 
the liative religion, superstitions, magic, fe- 
68 



tiches, etc. ; the real amount assimilated * of 
Protestant or Catholic Christianity, Moham- 
medanism, Buddhism, or other "higher" re- 
ligions. Give reasons and proofs, as far as pos- 
sible, for opinions rendered. 33- What results 
have purely religious missionary efforts to show ; 
how much has fear or compulsion or interest 
to do with favorable results; what dangers of 
relapse exist? 34* Is the nature of disease 
more rationally apprehended; what results 
have medical missions to show? 35. What is 
the attitude of the native sorcerers or priests 
toward traders, settlers, and missionaries? 36. 
What new diseases have been introduced 
through contact; what results have appeared, 
and how are they explainable? 37. Does 
human sacrifice persist under conditions of 
contact ? 

The Societal System. 38. What temporary 
or lasting effects of contact on the power and 
disposition of the native ruler; on the integ- 
rity and stability of the native government? 
39. What effect on the class or caste system; 
on slavery and slave - holding? 40. Upon 
morals and ideas of right and wrong; crimes 
and punishments; treatment of aliens? 41. 

* Try to show the relations of the higher type of belief, 
if adopted in form, to previously existing superstitions and 
beliefs. 

69 



Do the natives care much about the loss of 
independence, change of rulers, etc.? 42. If 
natives are to be ruled by a European people, 
show the strong and weak points of the system 
or systems observed. 

43. Explain any cases in which the 
higher race has been affected through or modi- 
fied by contact (adoption of native modes 
of life, exposure to native diseases, etc.). 
70 



INDEX 



Note. — References are to numbers of questions. Numbers in 
italics refer to the section " Contact and Modification." 



Abduction, 301 

Abstemiousness, 820 

Abstinence, iii 

Access (to natural sup- 
plies), 184 

Acting, 466 ff. 

Adoption, 380 

Adultery, 343, 826 

Affection, 340, 383, 386 

Aged. See Old. 

Agency, 488 

Agriculture and agricul- 
tural processes, 39 ff ., 4 

Alien. See Stranger. 

Alliance, 843, 867 

Altar, 619 ff. 

Amalgamation, 784 

Ancestor-worship, 555 ff., 

563 
Ancestry, 420 
Animals, 3 ff., 265, 282, 458, 

477» 5i3» 521, 548, 550, 

647, 699-701, 2. See 

Totemism. 
Animals, Draught, 169 
Animism, 504 ff. 
Anthropomorphism, 547 



Arts and Processes, 17, 38, 
52 ff., 205, 230, 269, 304, 
560, 782, 4 

Assembly. See Council. 

Astrology, 314, 642, 706 

Augury and Auspices, 641 



B 



Baptism, 569 

Bards, 485 

Bargain-sacrifice, 576 

Bark, 67 

Basketry, 52, 61 

Beard, 452-455 

Betrothal, 305 

Birth, 493, 494 

Blessing, 655 

Blood, 121, 591 

Bloodkin and Bloodkin- 

ship, 410 ff., 861 
Body, Disposition of, 534 

ff., 691, 836. See Dead. 
Bridges, 92, 166, 521, 598 
Brotherhood, 32, 415, 416 
Buddhism, 32 
Business enterprises, 198 



71 



Caesarism. See Chief. 

Calendar, 223 

Cannibalism, 125 ff., 4 

Caravan, 198 

Carriers, 167 

Castes, 135, 557, 781 ff., 

809, 3g 
Cattle and Cattle-raising, 

19 ff., 19T, 2 
Cause and effect, 488 
Celibacy, 295 
Character, 235, 236 
Chastity. See Virginity, 

Sexes. 
Chief, 276, 741 ff., 38 
Childbirth, 356 ff. 
Children, 280, 333, 365, 

378 ff., 423, 804, 4 
Chimney, 701 
Christianity, 52 
Circumcision, 590 ff. 
Clan, 731 

Classes. See Castes. 
Clothing, 159 ff., 330, 536, 

612, 6, 24 
Coin, 191 
Colonies, 866 
Commissary, 267 
Communication, 207, 8 
Communism, 419, 737 
Concubine. See Wife. 
Condiments, 156 
Confiscation, 285, 854 
Conquest, 783, 868, 869 
Contracts, 607 
Cooking, 103 ff., 4 
Coolie-system, 14 
Cooperation, 240, 859 
Cosmology, 723 ff. 
Coughing, 641 



Council, 761 ff. 
Counting, 220 ff., 8 
Creator, 563 
Crimes, 637, 821 ff., 40. 

See Law. 
Cursing, 655 
Custom, 38, 230, 765, 782, 

805 ff. 

D 

Daimonism, 540 ff. 

Daimonology, 567 ff. 

Dances, 469 ff. 

Dead, Treatment of, 271 ff., 
29i> 527' 595» 691, 836. 
See Body. 

Death, 492 ff., 508, 510 

Debt; 191, 200, 622, 793 

Deformations and Mutila- 
tions, 448 ff., 2Q 

Degeneration, 20 

Delirium, 495 

"Deposit-barter," 182 

Descent, 395 ff. 

Dialects, 216 

Discipline, 261 ff., 730, 735 

Disease, 23, 118, 368, 378, 
384, 425, 449, 677, J, 34, 

3^> 43 
Division of Labor, 240 
Doctor, 673 ff. 
Domesticated animals and 

plants, 205 
Domestication, 15, 714 
Dowry, 336 ff. 
Dreams, 497 ff., 511, 639, 

661 
Dress. See Clothing. 
Drinks, 559 
Drum, 207, 665 
Dualism, 571, 648 
Duel, 255, 609 



72 



Eating, 124,583,657,820 
Edifices, 84 ff., 59S. See 

Houses. 
Education, 231 ff., 257, 697, 

815 ff., 20 
Elopement, 301 
Empire, 869 
Enclosure, 49 
Enemy. See Stranger. 
Envy of gods, 631 
Epilepsy, 495, 661 
Equality, 736 
Ethnocentrism, 856 
Etiquette, 809 ff. 
Europeans, i, 42, 4J 
Evil eye, 656, 657 
Exogamy, 304 
Exorcism. See Magic, 

Daimonology. 
Export and Import, 187, 201 



Fainting, 495 

Fairness (in war), 244, 

250 ff. 
Fairs, 188 ff. 
Family, 418, 419, 557, 732, 

797 
Famine, 112 
Fatalism, 603 
Fashion, 459, 765, 6, 2Q 
Fasting, 498, 670. See 

Taboo. 
Fetiches, 647, 649, 699 ff., 

754, 32 
Fine Arts, 479 ff. 
Fines, 827, 77 
Fire, 80, 82, 94 ff., 521, 699, 

707 ff. 



73 



"First" (fruits, etc.), 47, 

582 
Fishing, i ff. 
Flint. See Stone. 
Folklore, 483 ff., 31 
Food, 106 ff., 377, 559, 

573 ff-, 2, 4 
Forgiveness, 635 
Foundation-sacrifice, 598 
Freedmen, 804 
Funeral, 528 ff. 
Furniture, 52, 87 
Future life, 514 ff. 



Gambling, 463-465, jo 
Game-laws, 7 
Games, 462 ff., 478 
Geography, 204 
Gesture, 208, 209 
Gods. See Spirits. 
Government, 732 ff., 38, 41 
Grains. See Agriculture. 
Grave, 701 

Guest. See Stranger. 
Guest- friendship, 863 ff. 

H 

Hair, 452 ff., 589 

Half-castes, 392, ^g^s 

Headdress, 456 

Hearth, 701 

History, 228 ff. 

Hoarding, 194 

Honesty, 189 

Honey, 120 

Horoscope, 642 

Hospitality, 752 

Houses, 38, 52, 292. See 

Edifices. 
Hunting, i ff. 



Hypnotism, 66i 
Hysteria, 66 1 



Illumination, 102 
Implements, 103, 124, 128, 

612, 674 
Incest, 299 
Indemnification, 848 
Infanticide, 374 ff. 
Inheritance, 391, 404 ff., 

695> 772, 19 

Initiation, 257, 696, 775 ff. 

Insanity, 661, 683 

Instruments. See Imple- 
ments. 

Intercourse (sexual), 313, 
326, 718 

Interest, 195, 196 

Intoxicants and intoxica- 
tion, 144 146, 149, 470, 
811 

J 

justice and Judges, 523, 
838 ff. 

K 

King. See Chief. 
Knowledge, 224 ff. 



Labor, 92, 5, ii. See 

Occupations. 
Land, 41, 49, 50, 283 £f., 

IQ 
Language, 208 ff., 487, 532, 

628, 782, 813 
Law, 38, 188, 199, 230, 765, 

768, 823 ff. 
Leather, 63 



Legends. See Myths. 
Levirate, 382 
Literature, 483 ff., Ji 
Loans. See Debt. 
Logic, 491 
Lot-casting, 609 
Luck, 138, 490, 508, 703 

M 

Magic, 460, 643 ff., 685 flf., 

745, 32 
Manufacture. See Arts 

and Processes. 
Mark, 413, 775, See Scar- 
ring, Tattooing. 
Markets, 188 ff. 
Marriage, 291 ff., 549, 596, 

718, 787 ff., 797, 804, 25 £f. 
Marriage, Dissolution of, 

399, 400 
Mechanical Devices, 78 ff. 
Mechanism of Exchange, 

191 ff., 8 
Medicine, 143, 675 flf. See 

Disease. 
Medicine-man. See Priest. 
Mendicancy, 789 
Mental operations, 488 ff. 
Metals, 69 ff. 
Meteors, 701 
Milk and milking, 30 ff. 
Mining, 70 ff. 
Minority, 774 ff. See 

Woman. 
Missions, 21, 33, 34 
Mohammedanism, 32 
Monarchy, 741 ff. 
Money, 191 ff. 
Monogamy, 346, 24, p. 28, 

note. 
Morals, 554, 814 ff., 5, 40 



74 



Mourning, 536 
Murder, 826, 843 ff. 
Music, 471 ff. 
Myths, II, 82, 96, 132, 142, 

151, 219, 230, 565, 566, 

816 fif. 

N 

Naming and Names, 21, 
176, 387 ff., 646, 713,856 
Niyoga, 382 
Nomadism, 37, 24 
Nursing, 376 ff. 

O 

Oaths, 606 ff. 
Occupations, 237 ff., 467, 

485 
Old, The, 38, 397, 398, 429 
Oligarchy, 738 
Omens, 640 ff. 
Oratory, 763, 764 
Ordeals, 609, 841 
Organization, 262. See 

Government. 
Ornament, 52, 430 ff. 
Ownership. See Property. 



Painting, 52, 65, 437 ff- 

Patriotism, 41. See Eth- 
nocentrism. 

Pauperism, 789 

Peace, 621, 808, 831 

Penalties. See Punish- 
ments. 

Penance, 602 

Pets, 458 

Pigment. See Painting. 

Piracy, 181 



Plants, 83. See Agricul- 
ture, Totemism. 

Poison, 5, 113, 244, 245, 678 

Police, 188, 850 ff., 23 

Polyandry, 346 

Polygamy, 346 

Polygyny, 346 

Population, 38, 422 ff., 2, 5, 
28 

"Possession," 700 ff. 

Pottery, 52, 59-62, 82 

Prayer, 614 ff. 

Precedent. See Custom, 
Law. 

Pregnancy, 333, 351 ff. 

Pregnancy, Accidents dur- 
ing, 353 ff. 

Presents, 179, 335, 338, 
416 

Priests, 316, 524, 628, 660 

ffv 757. 35 

Prisoners, 272. See Slav- 
ery. 

Production, 5, 10 

Property, 6, 22, 38, 273 ff., 
530,^ 623, 854, ig 

Propitiation. See Sacrifice. 

Prophecy, 501, 638 ff., 667 
ff. 

Prostitution and Prosti- 
tutes, 289, 312 

Puberty, 287, 716 

Punishments, 261, 301, 827 
ff., 17,40 

Purification, 317, 611. See 
Fire, Water, Baptism, etc. 

R 

Rain-making, 688 ff. 
Rattle, 665 
Re-birth, 512 



75 



Redemption, 588 

Relationships, 396, 409 ff. 

Religion, 38, 726, 729, 757, 
765,822,32^. 

Renunciation. See Taboo. 

Repudiation. See Mar- 
riage. 

"Revelation," 727 

Revolutions, 750 

Right and Wrong, 814 ff., 
40. See Morals. 

Rites and Ritual, 583, 626 ff 

Roads, 166 

Robber-tribes, 186 

Round Numbers, 703 



Sacraments, 611 
Sacrifice, 36, 572 ff., 644, 

721 
Sacrifice, Exuvial, 589, 591, 

592 
Sacrifice, Foundation, 598 
Sacrifice, Human, 584 ff., 

37 
Sacrifice, Vicarious, 636 
Sailing. See Shipping. 
Salt, 119, 184, 191, 274 
Sanctuary, Right of, 621 
Scapegoat, 636 
Scarring, 442, 594 
Sexes, 428, 711 
Sexes, Relations of, 286 ff. 
Sexual Excesses, 288 
Shaman. See Priest. 
Shame, 163-165, 436, 6 
Shipping, 172 ff. 
Shrine, 619 ff. 
Sickness and the Sick, 509, 

671 ff., 679 ff. See 

Disease. 



76 



Siege, 263 

Sin, 632 ff. 

Sites, 89, 91 

Skill, 266. See Weapons, 

etc. 
Skins, 63 
Slavery, 168, 280, 350, 787, 

790 ff., 12, 16, 39 
Slave-trade, 203, g 
Sleep,_ 495 
Sneezing, 641 
Societies, 693 ff., 778 ff. 
Song, 604, 605, ji. See 

Music. 
Sorcerer. See Priest. 
Soul, 500, 504 ff., 707 
Speculation, 494 
Speech. See Language. 
Spirits, 278, 540 ff., 630 ff., 

645 ff., 660 
Spirit-world, 514 ff. 
Standard of Value, 35 
Stars. See Astrology, Cos- 
mology. 
Stimulants, 141 ff., 167, 5 
Stone and Stone-tools, 54, 

56, 68 ff., 274, 704 
Stranger, 621, 860 ff., 40 
Style. See Fashion. 
Subordination, 735. See 

Discipline. 
Succession, 769 ff. 
Suckling. See Nursing. 
Suicide, 465, 836 
Suppliant. See Stranger. 
Surgery, 356, 360, 363, 594, 

674 ff., 26 
Survivals, 132, 192, 247, 

302, 320, 323, 324, 447, 

487, 581, 612, 613, 628, 

705,813,847 
Swimming, 178 



Taboo, III, 121, 133, 136, 
137, 158, 187, 214, 237, 
254, 256, 299, 326, 358, 

359» 425> 53i» 532, 594, 
621, 625, 657, 753, 807, 
808, 813, 4 

Talion, ^2,?>^ 834, 846 

Tattooing, 444 flf. 

Taxes. See Tolls. 

Teeth, 115, 441, 448, 451, 

589 
Temple, 619 ff. 
Textiles and Sewing, 57 ff. 
Theft. See Crimes. 
Time, 222, 223 
Tobacco, 152-155 
Tolls, 184, 185, 853 ff. 
Tools, 42, 52 ff., 75, 77 
Totemism, 711 ff. 
Trade, 179 ff., 216, 7, 18 
Traditions. See Myths. 
Training. See Education. 
Transmigration, 513 
Transportation, 93, 166 ff., 

7 
Treasure, 622, 855 
Trial, 839 
Tribe, 731, 856 
Trickery, 575, 661 ff. 

U 
"Unclean," 129, 134, 707 



Vagabondage, 789 



Values, 180 

Vehicles, 38, 170 

Vengeance. See Talion. 

Vermin, 18, 46 

Vessels, 103 

Virginity, 310 ff. 

Virtues; 814 ff. See Morals. 

Visions, 503, 661 

Vows, 600 



W 

Wages, 237, 259, 15 
Wants, 10 

War, 241 ff., 730, 800, 22 
War for glory, 460 
Warriors, 257 ff. See 

Castes. 
Water, 90, 171, 184, 252, 

521, 699 
Wealth, 460, 669, 745, 782, 

79i» 854 
Weapons, i ff., 52, 242 ff., 

266, 2 
Wedding, 315 ff. 
Weights and measures, 190, 

Widow, 348, 401 

Wife, 280, 300 ff. 

Women, 30, 44, 136, 183, 
197, 214, 257, 268, 279 
306, 331, 345» 37O' 402- 
404, 435> 744, 77i> 779. 
802, 27 

Wood, 56, 60 

Writing, 218 ff. 



77 



'^ 




8 






A 






CO 


10 






fr- 






to 


^ 






^ ■ 


— 






y^ 






i *^ 


Q 




o _ 



SEP 16 1903 



